THE ROLE OF COLLECTIVE BARGAINING ON MANAGEMENT AND LABOUR RELATIONS A CASE STUDY OF FIRST ALUMINIUM COMPANY LIMITED AND WEST AFRICAN GLASS INDUSTRY LIMITED PORT HARCOURT

ABSTRACT

Industrial relations are inherently a bipartite relationship  between  union and  management,  representing  workers  and  the  employer.  Similar  to other  relationship,  the  union  management  relationship  is  also  highly fragile   and   complex.   Collective   bargaining   typically   refers   to   the negotiation,  administration  and  interpretation  of  a  written  agreement between two parties that covers a specific period of time. this agreement or contract lay out in a specific terms the condition of employment, puts some limits on employees and sets limits on managements authority. ILO has defined collective bargaining as negotiations about working conditions and terms of employment between an employer, a group of employers or one or more employees organization on the other with a view to reaching agreement where in the terms of an agreement serve as a pc defining the rights and obligations each party in their – employment relates  with one another, it fixes a large number of detailed conditions of employment and during  its  validity  more  of  the  matters  it  deals  with  can  in  normal circumstances give grounds for dispute concerning an individual worker”. The unpalatable side of industrial relations and one which the public often associates  unions  is  the  strike.  The  strike  indicates  a break  down  of cordial relationships  between labor and management and is usually the most negative  commentary.  To achieve this, case study approach was adopted and subsequently, questionnaire and personal interview methods were accepted as an important instrument to dispute resolution. Also we found out that dispute is both functional and dysfunctional and that  the effect of it is born by the individual organization and the economy.  The concept  of  management  labor  relations  has  attracted  attention  from academicians  and  practicing  managers  during  the  past  decades.  The economic  interest  of  the  union  is  matched  by  the  sensitivity  of  the employer   to   market   considerations   particularly   in  situations   where competition  is very  keen. Employers  in this position are more likely to consolidate into one bargaining entity. In any event that each party has a defined interest in variable economic factors sets the basis for conflict with respect to wages and salaries. It is important to note that in resolving the conflicting  economic  interests  of  the  union  and  management  of  the agreement  that  emerges  is  somewhere  within  the  original  offer  by management and the original demand by the union. The interest and the formation  of  bargaining  structure  outlined  in  this  project  have  been influenced   by   such   factors   as   the   economic   and   organizational environment,  in  the  private  sector  thereby  leaving  room  for  further research especially in the public sector and or other tertiary institutions.

CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION

1.1    BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

The  encyclopedia  of social sciences  defines  collective bargaining   as   a   “process   of   discussion   and   negotiation between two parties, one or both of whom is a group of k6*s acting in concert. The resulting bargain is an understanding as to terms or conditions under which a continuing service is to be performed. More especially, collective bargaining is the procedure by which an employer or employers and a group of employees agree upon the conditions of work”. The Webb described collective bargaining as an economic institution, with trade unionism acting as a labor cartel by controlling entry into the trade. Professor Allan Flander argues that collective bargaining is primarily a political rather than an economic process. It is power relationship between a trade union organization  and  the  management  organization.  The agreement arrived at is a compromise settlement of power conflicts. According to Harbinson, collective bargaining is  “a process of accommodation between two institutions which have both common and conflict interests”.

The process is “collective” because representatives of employees in groups rather as individuals solve issues relating to terms and conditions of employment The term” bargaining “refers   to   evolving   an   agreement   using   methods   like

negotiations, discussions, exchange of facts and ideas, rather than confrontation. The process of collective bargaining is bipartite in nature, I .e. the negotiations are between the employers   and   the   employees,   without   a   third   party intervention. Divergent view points are put forth by the parties concerned, and through negotiations, a settlement is reached. The objective is to arrive in agreement. Collective bargaining serves as a number of important functions.

It is a rule making or legislative process in the sense that it formulates terms and conditions under which labor and management may cooperate and work together over a certain stated period, It is also a judicial process for every collective agreement there is a provision or clause regarding the interpretation of the agreement and how many difference of opinion about the intention or scope of a particular clause is to be resolved, it is also an executive process for both management and union undertake to implement the agreement signed.

Salient features of collective barraging are:

1.      It is a “group” process wherein one group represents the employers and the other represents employees. They sit together to negotiate terms of employment.

2.      The collective bargaining process  follows a number of steps. It begins with the presentation of the chapter of demands and the reaching of an agreement.

3.      Negotiations form an important aspect of the process of collective bargaining deliberations rather than confrontation.

4.      It is a bipartite process involving the employers and the employees.

The ILO convention No. 98 (1949) relating to the right organize and to bargain collectively describes collective bargaining as:

“Voluntary  negotiation  between  employers  and employers”  organizations  and  workers  organizations,  with  a view to the regulation of terms and conditions of employment by collective agreements”.

There are several essential features of collective bargaining, all of which cannot reflect in a single definition or description. They are as follows:

i.      It is not equivalent to collective agreements because collective bargaining refers to the process or means, and collective    agreements    to    the    possible    result,    of

bargaining. There may therefore be collective bargaining without a collective agreement.

ii.      It is a method used by trade unions to improve the terms and conditions of employment of their members, often on the basis of equalizing them across industries.

iii.      It  is  a  method  that  restores  the  unequal  bargaining position as between employer employee.

iv.     Where it leads to an agreement it modifies, rather than replaces, the individual contract of employment, because it does not create the employer-employee relationship.

v.      The process is bipartite, but in some developing countries the state plays a role in the form of a conciliator where disagreements  occur,  or  may  intervene  more  directly (e.g., by setting wage guidelines) where collective bargaining impinges on government policy.

vi.     Employers have in the past used collective bargaining to reduce competitive edge based on labor costs.

There has been wide spread belief within the industrial circle that prior to 1968, industrial relation policy in Nigerian had the unique characteristics of volunteerism. This rather amorphous   concept   describes   a   policy   by   which   the government  plays  the  primary  role  of  prescribing  minimum

standards of practices, while leaving day by day practices to both sides of industry. This view is correct only if the only yard- stick for regulating labour laws of the period is regarded as the only yard-stick for regulating labour management relations. But there is overwhelming evidence of a substantial state invention and control in the actual practice of labour-management relations, both during and after the colonial period and much of that amended from outside the legal framework.

In 1968, the civil war has started and the government was  resolved  to  prevent  labour unions  from  any  distraction capable of undermining the task of the military government to maintain the unity of the country. Subsequent policies, starting with  Trade  Disputes  (Emergency  provisions)  decree  of  that year, marked the end of voluntarism and the beginning of state limited intervention relations. This new policy officially referred to as limited intervention and guided democracy has had profound consequences  on  the state of labour-management relations. This new policy by and large had produced contradictory results which are advantageous and disadvantageous to the union and management with government introduction of restrictive legislation, such as the Trade  Dispute  (Essential  Services)  Decree  of  1976  which

outlawed the strike, raising questions about the purposeful role of government. The unions on the other hand have violated the non-strike injunction, thus exposing the impotence of the policy. This is a clear manifest that unresolved problems abound.

As mentioned by Elanders (1958) whether Trade Union structure is under debate or the organization of employers association, or the prospect of an income policy, or the frequency of unofficial strikes, or the relaxing of restrictive practices or failure of joint consultation to realize the earlier hope that were placed in it, no one is any longer disputing that pressing largely unresolved problems abound:-

It is these desires of the parties that are more or less unlimited, inspite of the wish to co-exist that gives rise to in Damachi’s words latent antagonism within themselves.

But as pointed out by kilby (1973) despite the careful constructed institutional framework and avoided commitment of all parties concerned, voluntary collective bargaining has failed to function as a significant mechanism for fixing wages. But in Nigeria private sector skill claims that they operate collective bargaining, but what makes Kilby’s argument valid, is that because the Nigerian management negotiate on a much stronger power position  than  the union  the agreement  from

such  negotiation  tend  in  effect  to  be  largely  dictated  by management rather than being a product of bargain.

The role of the state in industrial relating in this respect becomes very important not so much because government policy had produced contradictory results and consequences but primarily because it expresses the value and priorities in the industrial relation system.

What Is Collective Bargaining?

Collective bargaining has been defined as the process by which the antithetical interest of supply and demand or buyers and sellers, are fully adjusted so to end in the act of exchange, Flanders (1970).

The whole idea of collective bargaining was the work of the  Webb.  i.e.  Sydney  and  Beatrice  Webbs  (1920).  They argued that collective bargaining is an economic activity where workers offer their services for sale to their employer. To the Webbs, collective bargaining satisfied the macro-economic functions of demand and supply. They also implied in their work that collective bargaining is the equivalent of individual bargaining.

Flanders (1970) saw the works of the Webbs as a kind of economic  recipe.  He  did  not  disagree  completely  with  the Webbs in the importance of economic factors in the bargaining process, is the fact that bargaining process is a rule making process and also involves power relationship between the employers and employees. This aspect according to Flanders is the most important aspect of the bargaining process.

In my own summation, when two or more individual grounds or organizations experience a conflicts of interest; and when they wish to resolve their difference because it would be mutually  beneficial  to  do  so.  They  decide  to  bargain,  such parties come to the bargaining table with a certain power-base with the wherewithal to concede or refuse conditions desired by the opponent, whether the conflicting parties are nations, corporation or unions.

Collective bargaining could therefore be said to be a process of social interaction  which each party uses various tactics to accomplish its goal, to manipulate the other party in the desired direction. These tactics may include bluffing, argumentation, concession, threats strikes etc.

1.2    OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

In Nigeria today, the rate at which trade disputes occur, is so alarming. Though no precise figure exist as to provide an actual and certain grand total of loses sustained annually by the workers, the industry and nation. Almost all the workers in electricity, water and gas service sector of the economy were on strike at one time or the other in 1982 and 1993 courtesy of PENGAASSAN. As stated earlier, this is not an encouraging picture.

The conclusion that one is led to draw is multi- dimensional. That the collective barging process is ineffective and   required   re-organization   to   meet   the   pressure   and demands  of modern  industry  and  finally  that  the  arbitration machinery needs an overhaul from lethargy and re-ordering of its methodology to assume its operation as part of and within the collective bargaining process.

Thus it is necessary to examine critically the following:

1.      What collective bargaining is really about and some of its relevant theories.

2.      The processes of collective bargaining and some labour policies of government, both past and present.

3.      The consequences of the negotiation. (a)         Agreement

(b)         Trade Dispute

4.      The causes and effect of Trade Dispute.

This is because the objective of collective bargaining is to agree upon a contract acceptable to union representatives, union members and management. The bargaining agreement reflects the problem of the particular workplace and industry in which the agreement is negotiated. The agreement may have no bearing on another. This is widely reflected in the demands unions place on management and in the subject and terms of the agreement  finally  negotiated. Leaving aside  the  specific issues   contained   in   various   contracts,   four   issues   that commonly appear in all labour contracts include wages, hours of   work.  Terms  and   conditions   of  employment  and   the grievance procedure.

There are three procedural and practice, they are:

1.      Contents of procedural agreements

Except for minor differences of detail, most procedural agreements have common characteristics. They stipulate subjects for negotiation or discussion at each level (i.e national, enterprise or branch) and the residual issues for individual enterprises or plants. In many of such agreements,   as   in   the   food   industry,   issues   of

management prerogatives are defined. The agreements also   define   the   bargaining   unit   in   terms   of   which categories of employees are covered. The machinery for negotiation, commonly known as the National Joint Industrial Council (NJIC), its constitution and the mode of operation  are  embodied  in  the  procedural  agreement. They also specify the grievance procedure, both internal and external, and whether disputes are of the individual or collective nature. Inmost agreements, an undertaking is made that both sides will endeavour to resolve their grievances  step  by step  under the  internal procedure, failing which the provisions of the Trade Disputes Act will be followed.

2.      Negotiable and non-negotiable issues

The procedural agreement, as noted, contains issues which are negotiable at industry, company and house or plant levels, as well as issues or discussion. Sometimes included are what may be referred to as management issues,  which  are  not negotiable.  Over  the  years,  the number of issues on the negotiable list has increased. In the  table  below, the  evolutionary growth  of negotiable issues in the banking industry is presented.

In 1967 when the multi-employer bargaining structure was started, the number of negotiable and non- negotiable issues were about the same. Writing in the same year, M. 0. Abiodun listed 11 issues which were commonly negotiated in industry.

For analytical purposes, we can examine the nature of negotiable and non-negotiable issues in the procedural agreement under three distinct categories, viz:

(1)    Mandatory or negotiable issues

(2)    Voluntary or discussion issues, and(S) Managerial issues.

Evolution and growth of bargaining issues in the banking industry.

1967 Subjects for Negotiation	1976       subjects		for	1979      Subjects		for
	Negotiation			Negotiation
1. Salaries and wages	1. Wages and Salaries			1. Wages and Salaries
2. Hours of work	2. Hours of Work			2. Hours of Work
3. Overtime and Rates	3. Overtime and Overtime Rates			3.        Overtime		and
				Overtime Rat	es
4. Annual Leave & Maternky	4.     Leave	&	Leave	4.     Leave	&	Leave
Leave	Condition			Condition
5. Medical Scheme & Sickness	5. Disciplinary Procedure			5. Disciplinary Procedure
Benefits
6. Principles of Termination of	6.          Princ	iples	of	6.         Princ	iples	of
service and Redundancy	Redundancy			Redundancy
7. Uniforms and Protective	7.         Uniforms		and	7.        Uniforms		and
Clothing	Protective Clothing			Protective Clothing
Subjects not for Negotiation	8. Allowances			8. Allowances
All  Subjects  listed  above  and  in	9. Pension & Gratuity			9. Pension & Gratuity
Particular
1.   Welfare	10.     Thirteenth     Month			10.    Thirteenth    Month Annual Cash payment
	Annual Cash payment
2. Management Methods	11. Sickness Benefits			11. Sickness Benefits
3. Pensions, Provident	12. Medical Scheme			12. Medical Scheme
4.  Conditions in Premises	13.  Principles  of  Loans (Vehicle and House)			13. Principles of Loans
5.  Nigerianisation, including	14. Canteen Facilities			14.    Canteen    Facilities
Education & Training				Luncheon Vouchers

6. Discipline

Source:        Azuka O. Diali, Adapted from “Industrial Relations  and Collective    Bargaining    in    Banking    and    Financial Industries” Lagos, Nigeria Institute of Bankers’ lecture, March, 1985.

1979 Subjects for Negotiation
S/N	Union’s List	Association’s List
1	Recognition        &       procedural matters	Same
2	Probationary period of Service	Same
3	Principles         of        Promotion/ Conversion	Same
4	Principles of Training	Same
5	Disciplinary Procedure	–
6	Principles of Redundancy	Same
7	Union Levies	Same
8	Professional Examinations	Same
9	Uniforms and Protective Clothing	–
10	Principles of Staff Loans Scheme	L/V or Canteen Facilities
11	Pensions & Gratuity Scheme	Same
12	Burial Facilities	Same
13	Profit Sharing Scheme	Same
14	Luncheon Vouchers*	Same
15	Salaries and Wages	Same
16	Hours of Work	Transfer of Union Officials
17	Overtime	Allowances: Leave, Transport,
18	Leave	Housing Acting, Inconvenience,
19	Transfer	Out-of-Station
20	Allowances	Same
21	Sickness Benefit	Same
22	Medical Scheme	Same
23	Staff Transport	Same
24	Staff Housing	Same
25	Thirteenth   Month  Annual   Cash Payment	Same
26	Job Rotation	Securities   in   Respect   of   Cash Shortages
27	Salaries	–
28	New Technology	–
29	Work Environment	–
30	Occupation Safety/Security	Same
31	Grading	–
32	Accident Free Award	Accident   Free   Award   (Banking Group only)
	Items 10, 11, 13, & 14 To  be  negotiated  at  Company level	All   negotiations   to   be   at   the national level

3.      Mandatory or negotiable issues

This refers to those issues which management and union he agreed to negotiate upon. While no law explicitly specifies these issues, wage issues and a host of other conditions of employment are recognized by the Labour Act of 1974 as falling within the collective bargaining process. However, through custom and past practice, certain issues have become mandatory for negotiation. Table  below provides a listing of such issues. It can be seen that the number of negotiable issues fairly approximate the comparable list in the banking industry, as shown in columns 4 and 5 of the Table.

Mandatory or Negotiable Issues, 1982.

1	Wages and Salaries
2	Hours of Work
3	Sick Leave
4	Out-of-Station Allowance
5	Shift and night allowance
6	Leave allowance
7	Annual Leave
8	Transfer allowance
9	Housing allowance
10	Redundancy (Principle)
11	Acting allowance
12	Pension and gratuity
13	Disciplinary procedure
14	Annual cash payment
15	Uniform/protective clothing
16	Medical scheme
17	Extra duty allowance
18	Canteen facilities
19	Overtime rates
20	Heat allowance
21	Maternity leave
22	Transport allowance
23	Long service award
24	Transport facilities
25	Car/Motor-cycle allowance

Source: Tayo  Fashoyin, “Emerging Trends  in  Collective

Bargaining in Nigeria”, Preman, 9, 1 (Jan. – June, 1982)

The  progressive  increase  in  the  number of negotiable issues is due partly to aggressive union pressure, as they seek to bring as many issues as possible within the orbit of negotiation. Obviously, the more the number of issues in this category, the greater the chances of the union influencing the employment conditions of the employer(s). Naturally, the union drive to increase the number of negotiable issues is faced with management resistance to the inclusion of many items in the category. There is no doubt that the bargaining strategy employed by the respective parties does play a decisive role in these – opposite desires.

1.3    STATEMENT OF PROBLEMS

There have been incessant cases of trade dispute resulting in industrial strike actions could have been prevented at  an  earlier stage and  where  loopholes  in  the control and procedures have been exploited.

This   research   is   going   to   dwell   on   the   collective bargaining and the effects of trade dispute. If completed will contribute towards the solutions in our private and public institution. This is because, if the word collective bargaining

and its processes are understood properly, there will be no need to contend about strikes or its effects.

The    theory    lying    behind    the    concept    of    labor management relations may be stated as:

The workers generally know the problems related to the work more actually than others in the organization. They generally  possess  some  views  and  suggestions  relating  to- their work and have a desire to put them before the management. They expect that their suggestions find a due place in the formulation of policies affecting them. The management generally takes decisions on its own and imposes them on the workers. The views and the suggestions of the workers may or may not be relevant but ignoring them creates doubts   in   minds   of   workers   about   the   intentions   of management. This gives rise to labor-management conflict and makes workers alienated from management.” the application of behavioral science theories to problems of industrial relations and productivity at the shop floor level has indicated the significance of participative management in  the reduction of alienation among workers in the modern technological system, increased job satisfaction and morale among employees and achievement of greater efficiency. The philosophy underlying

participative management stresses democratic participation in decision making, maximum employer- employee collaboration, minimum state intervention, realization of a greater measure of social justice, greater industrial efficiency, and higher level of organizational health and effectiveness, participative management   echoes   the   millennial   vision   of   nineteenth century-thinkers while heralding the evolution of new forms of individual organizations under twentieth century pressures (Walker 1973).it has only remained a means through which workers and their organizations’ can put forward their views and influence decisions, but also has developed into a new management strategy (Monat and Sarfati 1986).

Participative management is intended to provide an institutional structure in which interest based conflicts become less bitter through preventive as well as positive ways. This development is perhaps due to the realization that this might be a way to suppress conflicts, achieve a harmonious and qualitative   development   and   also   carry   out   the   political programs of the most progressive forces in a society.

Various factors, such as socio-economic and political changes,   the   views   of   social   thinkers,   the   theoretical orientations and the Marginal’s philosophies have contributed a

lot in its development. Participation in the political context is an influencing process, so also the plant level, it affects employee terms and conditions of employment. Yet at the same time, the dynamics of an enterprises viability and hence mutuality helps in  establishing  greater  involvement  rather  than  creating  a feeling of alienation. Workers should feel in their work they are evaluated and respected as free persons of equal value within framework of rules and natural order and discipline needed in a well  regulated  industry.  In  an  atmosphere  of  cooperation, mutual respect and tolerance, they should have to influence conditions and measures that affect them directly and whole community inside the undertaking” (Aspengren 1979). In an organizational system participative management may be considered  as  a  philosophy,  principle  and  a  practice  of ensuring industrial democracy through mutual consolation, communication and understanding by establishing faith, mutual trust and cooperation of workers and management. This will help to attain a whole hearted involvement of an organizations own workforce, each involving. Initiating and infusing with the organization in the area of his competence and concern, resulting in the achievement of organizational goals, individual well-being and industrial peace and harmony(Michael 1996).the

international; institute for labor studies defined participative management  as  ‘the  participation  resulting  from  practices which increase the scope for employees share of influence in decision making at different tiers of organizational hierarchy with concomitant assumption of responsibility”. In its broad sense, employee participation means associating representatives of workers at every stage of decision making, as Ibdone in former West Germany and Yugoslavia process by which the workers share in decision making extends beyond the decisions that are implicit in the specific contents of the job they do. This, in actual practice, amounts to the workers having a share  in the reaching of final managerial decisions in an enterprise  (Virmani  1978).  Thus,  participative  management may be taken to cover all terms of association of workers and their representative with the decision making process, ranging from exchange of information, consultations, decisions and negotiations to more institutionalized forms, such as the presence of workers” members on management or supervisory boards or even management by workers themselves as practiced in Yugoslavia.

1.4    RESEARCH QUESTIONS

In order to assist the researcher do a good job certain question were formulated:

a.      What is the essence of collective bargaining?

b.      What is the origin of collective bargaining?

c.      How will collective bargaining affect management labour relationship?

d.      What is the best and fastest way to resolve any dispute?

e.      How   can   frequent   management   labour   dispute   be avoided?

1.5    HYPOTHESES

As a way to ascertain the role of collective bargaining on management labour relationship certain hypothesis were formulated:

Ho        Collective bargaining as it affects management labour relationship need to be reviewed

H1        Collective  bargaining  as  it  affects  management  labour relationship need not to be reviewed.

Ho        The compliance of management in keeping to agreements is satisfactory.

H1        The compliance of management in keeping to agreement is not satisfactory.

Ho        Enough strategy  is employed  to  improve management labour relations.

1.6    SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

The importance of the study is not far-fetched. The study could expose to the management and the entire society to the collective bargaining process and the incidence, causes and effect of labour/management dispute.

This  study  will  also  open  a  new vista  in  the  area  of labour/industrial relations and arouse new ways, formula and weapons  for setting  inputs  rather  than  incessant strike  and lock-outs.

More so, that collective bargaining establishes what is generally   referred   to   as   industrial   jurisprudence   in   the workplace. This represents a set of work rules jointly made by the employer and workers representative. These rules specify the   rights   and   obligations   of   workers   individually   and collectively, as well as those of management. Also by this collective rule making the employer and the union undertake that the day to day interaction between them shall be guided by rules  that have  already  been  agreed upon. The  employees contribution to rule making comes generally through his elected

representatives,  through  whom  he  influences  the  industrial policy of management.

1.7    SCOPE OF STUDY

We cannot say that collective bargaining is a panacea for all the ills of management labour relations.

Effective   collective   bargaining   contributes   to   solving strategic problems of management labour relations at the enterprise and industry level. It enables the parties to arrive at a joint compromise to common problems. Management may lose their unilateral discretion on essential issues that affect the workers on the one hand, while they can take the, workers into their confidence regarding the problem that affect both of them, on the other. This would help avoid and avert undesirable situations and direct actions, while it stimulates productivity.

Thus a peaceful working environment is essential for establishing  cordial relations, since  both  the  employers  and employees arrive at a mutual agreement that can create progress. They come closer that help them to maintain more cordial relations. ILO observes, collective agreements provide the climate for smooth progress. The agreement spell out the working    relationship    between    employers    and    workers

organization in which a synthesis between the demand for one side  and  concessions  for  the  other  can  be  given  practical shape. The trade unions and the workers are better off since they are able to take the workers into their confidence, which would lead to good employer-employee relations, industrial peace and prosperity.

Collective bargaining ensures a give and take policy leading to better industrial democracy and trade union management co- operation.

1.8    LIMITATION OF THE STUDY

This is only focused on the role of collective bargaining on management labour relations that brings about industrial disharmony and logjam in the utilization of available human and material resources for productivity.

The study covers only two firms in Port Harcourt- First Allumininun   Company   Limited   and   West   African   Glass industry ltd. it also considers the management on one hand and  labour  (employees)  on  the  other  hand.  This  research study is however limited by time to elicit elaborate responses and  material needed,  and  also  resources  that  would  have

enhanced a more thorough research and outcome. There was also the unwillingness of the respondents to give information.

1.9        DEFINITION OF TERMS

!   Bargaining Power

In negotiating, capacity of one part to dominating the other due to influence, power size, status   or through a combination of different persuasion tactics.

!   Collective Bargaining Agreement

A written contractual agreement between an employer and a labour union that governs wages, hours and working conditions for employees and which can be enforced against both  the  employer and  the  union  for  failure  to comply with its terms. Such an agreement is reached following the process of collective Bargaining.

!   Collective Bargaining

Collective  Bargaining  is  the  process  where  wages  and other condition of employment are settled through negotiation  between  employers  or  association  of employers and work’s association.

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