ABSTRACT
Physicochemical and bacteriological analyses of borehole water samples were randomly collected from ten boreholes which supply drinking water to various communities of Aninri, Awgu and Oji River Local Government Areas of Enugu, Nigeria. The boreholes were sampled in both dry and rainy seasons. The following physicochemical parameters: pH, temperature, colour, electrical conductivity, turbidity, total dissolved solids, hardness, calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium, alkalinity, acidity, lead, copper, cadmium and iron were determined using standard methods. E. coli count was determined by membrane lauryl sulphate broth method. Results of physicochemical tests were in compliance with WHO guideline values, except in the cases of sulphate level of 1,670 mg/L in water sample from Mpu in Aninri L.G.A., high chloride levels in samples from Ndeaboh and Mpu with values of 18,088 and 1,095 mg/L respectively. Similarly, sodium was also very high in the two boreholes, 5,625 and 8,500 mg/L. The water samples showed acid pH particularly in Oji River with values ranging from
4.30 to 6.30. Most of the water samples were soft waters, except samples from Ndeaboh, Mpu and Mgbowo with hardness values of 6,250, 6,250 and
840 mg/L respectively. Trace metal concentrations were below WHO guideline values, except samples from Mgbowo and Nnenwe with iron values of 4.54 and 3.13 mg/L. E. coli was isolated in two boreholes located in unkept surroundings in Oduma and Agbogugu with E. coli counts of 7 and 108 cfu/100 mL respectively. Generally, the borehole waters are considered safe for drinking except these ones polluted with E. coli and sodium chloride. The effects of unsafe drinking water are discussed, with recommendations to the Authorities regarding the safety measures to be applied.
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Water is one of the earth’s most precious resources. Water is often referred to as a universal solvent because it dissolves many minerals. It can exist in three states as liquid, gas (at 100 C) and solid (at freezing temperature of<
4 C). Water is fundamentally important to all plants, animals including man’. Without it, there is no life. Good drinking water is not a luxury but one of the most essential amenities of life. Although water is essential for human survival, many are denied access to sufficient potable water supply and sufficient water to maintain basic hygiene. Globally, over one billion people lack access to clean safe water. The majority of these people are in Asia (20%) and sub-Sahara Africa (42%). Further, about 2.4 billion people lack adequate sanitation worldwide .
It is estimated that > 80% of ill health in developing countries are water and sanitation-related”. Thus, lack of safe drinking water supply and poor hygienic practices due to lack of water are associated with high morbidity and mortality from excreta-related diseases.
Consequently, water-borne pathogens infect around 250 million people each year resulting in 10 to 20 million deaths world-wide.  An estimated 80% of all child  deaths under the  age of five years  in developing  countries  result from diarrhoea diseases”
Lack of safe drinking water and inadequate sanitation measures could also lead to a number of diseases such as dysentery, cholera and typhoid” Against this backdrop, the supply of safe drinking water to all has been at the front burner at the United Nations Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) to reduce poverty and promote sustainable development worldwide especially in developing countries. Her target for water, is to halve by 2015, the proportion of people without sustainable access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation. However, it is envisaged that this target may not be easy in developing countries because of (a) high population growth, (b) conflict and political instability and (c) low priority given to water and sanitation programmes in developing countries.
1.1 Ground Water as Source of Portable Water.
Water exists in several forms in the environment including sea water, sea• ice, fresh water, and water vapour as clouds and mist. As water moves through the environment it picks up gases and elements, flow to the sea and through ground in an endless process known as the hydrologic cycle.
The hydrological cycle ensures that water available on the earth is renewable as it passes through a cycle of evaporation, Â condensation and ultimately back to water in an endless cycle.
Groundwater occurs as part of the hydro logic cycle, which is the movement of water between the earth and the atmosphere through evaporation, condensation, transpiration and precipitation. The underground area where water exists is referred to as an aquifer which is a layer of porous substrate
that contains and transmits groundwater”. Therefore, groundwater when
properly harnessed will provide consistent supplies of potable water because it’s believed to be good.
1.2 Water pollution
Water pollution as defined by GESAMP (1988) means “the introduction by man directly or indirectly of substances or energy which result in such harmful effects as
• harm to living resources,
• hazards to human health,
• hindrance to aquatic activities including fishing,
• impairment of water quality with respect to its uses in agricultural, industrial and often economic activities, and
•  reduction of amenities”.
It can also be seen as anything whether physical or chemical that affects the natural condition or the intended use of water. It is clear that water pollution depends on the ultimate use to which the water in question will be put. In other words, water which might be considered not polluted or satisfactory for certain industrial use might very well be considered polluted or unsatisfactory for drinking.
With increasing population, there is need for more water, and groundwater has proved the most reliable resources for meeting dispersed rural water demand in sub-Saharan Africa’. However, several practices such as the application of fertilizers and agrochemicals, abandoned or inactive mine sites, septic tanks, landfill etc, if not managed effectively could contaminate and eventually pollute groundwater. The quality of water in boreholes is also affected by the presence of heavy metals in the soil such as Pb, Mn, Cd, Cu, Fe, Zn, Cr etc. There is also the problem of microbial pollution.
1.3 Study area
The study took place in Aninri, Awgu and Oji River Local Government
Areas of Enugu State, Nigeria. These Local Government Areas make up
Aninri/Awgu/Oji River Federal Constituency. Geographically located within Latitude 05″° 55′ -06 20′ N and Longitude 07  10′-07″ 40’E. Aninri has clay and loamy flat lands;  Oji River has sandy flat lands, while Awgu has clay and stony lands with hilly topography. Petty trading and subsistence agriculture  are the  major  occupation  of the people.  There  is no notable industry located in this area and its environs.
1.4 Statement of the Problem
• In spite of various researches conducted on groundwater (boreholes), there is no published data available to determine the water quality of the boreholes in Aninri, Awgu and Oji River Local Government Areas of Enugu State.
• No evidence of any form of maintenance or any assessment carried out on the quality of water being pumped.
1.5 Aim and Objectives
This study was to determine the quality of water from boreholes in this area as to ascertain its safety for consumption in relation to standards set by the World Health Organization (WHO) for drinking water.
The objectives of this study are (i) to determine the quality of water from the boreholes  in Aninri/Awgu/Oji  River  Local  Government  Areas  of Enugu state, Nigeria,  and (ii) provide  baseline  data of determined  parameters  for future assessment.
The specific objectives were to:
• Determine the levels of these parameters in the borehole water: pH, temperature, colour, odour, conductivity, total dissolved solids (TDS), turbidity, total acidity, total alkalinity, hardness, So,, PO,’, CI, NO,, K, Ca, Mg, Cd, Cu, Pb and Fe.
• Determine any significant seasonal variation on the parameters.
• Access the level of bacteria contamination in the boreholes.
• Compare the level of the parameters with WHO guideline values.
• Ascertain the possible causes of any contaminations in order to make appropriate recommendations to alleviate the problem.
1.6 Justification of Study
Water supply sources for inhabitants of the Local Government Areas under study include, supply from water tankers, stored rain water, streams and borehole/well waters. However, because of population and urbanization,
boreholes  have become the major  sources of water supply  for drinking and for domestic uses in this area,  and water pumped out of these boreholes does not undergo any form of treatment before consumption, the possibilities  of contamination  from the service lines, feacal wastes, storage tanks, anthropogenic or geochemistry of these areas justify this research.
This material content is developed to serve as a GUIDE for students to conduct academic research
PHYSICOCHEMICAL AND BACTERIOLOGICAL ANALYSES OF BOREHOLE WATERS IN ANINRI AWGU AND OJI RIVER LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREAS OF ENUGU STATE NIGERIA>
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