IMPACT OF AGROCHEMICALS APPLICATION ON HUMAN HEALTH AND THE ENVIRONMENT OF BADEGGI AND ENVIRONS, NIGER STATE, NIGERIA

ABSTRACT

The occurrence of agrochemicals in our environment as a result of the indiscriminate or intentional  use  has  resulted  in  its  persistence  in  the  environment,  thereby  affecting  the ecosystems and non target organisms in the study area. Therefore this study examine impact of agrochemicals application on human health and the environment in Baddegi and environs, Niger State, Nigeria. The materials and methods used in this study include questionnaire and oral interview. The method of data analysis used in this study include frequency percentage, 5-point likert type scale, mean and 3-point likert scale. The finding revealed that major reason for application of agrochemical was increase yield which ranked the highest with 203 respondents, control  pests  and  diseases  ranked  second  with  67  respondents  and  improve appearance for marketability ranked the least with 11 respondents. As revealed in the study, type of agrochemicals to apply in farms were determine through use own experience, asks what other farmers have used, as advised by extension officer and experiments on different types then choose. The finding revealed that 292 respondents affirmed that their exist health problems associated with the use of agrochemicals in the study area and 49 respondents said they do not suffer any health problem due to the use of agrochemicals. These health problems include skin, eye, stomach and respiratory irritations. As revealed in the study, rating the risk of agrochemicals effects on soil, air, surface water, aquatic organism and birds were done in four categories. Moderately harmful ranked the highest with 153 respondents and not harmful ranked the least with 42 respondents. Surface water ranked the highest on the effect of agrochemical with 87 respondents and air ranked the least affected component of the environment. This implies that all the components  of the environment  were  effected with  agrochemicals  in  the study area as affirmed by the respondents. It‟s therefore recommended that agricultural stakeholders such as the Ministry of agriculture to carry out sensitization campaigns to educate farmers on proper and efficient use of agrochemicals to improve productivity as well as prevent adverse environmental and human health effects.

CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

The rapid expansion of the agricultural sector in Nigeria has resulted in increased demand for agrochemicals (Ariga et al., 2016). The use of agrochemicals has many benefits, increased crops and animal yields and reduced post-harvest losses (Oerke et al., 2014). The benefits associated with the use of agrochemicals have resulted in an increase in the importation of assorted agrochemicals  in  the Country.  According to  Singh  et  al.,  (2014), 371886  metric tonnes  of fertilizers were imported in Nigeria, 271,886 more than that used in 2010. Nigeria„s fertilizer market was liberalized during the early 2010s when price and marketing controls, licensing arrangements and import permits and quotas were eliminated (Ariga et al., 2016). Also according Tegemeo Institute, Egerton University, usage of assorted fertilizer went slightly above 400,000 metric tonnes (Mathenge, 2009). Approximately 8,370 tonnes of pesticides with a value of ₦4.68 billion were imported into the country in 2015 (Birech et al., 2016).

Agrochemicals are highly toxic and have been associated with serious human health and environmental damages (Briggs et al., 2009). Extensive use of agrochemicals in the agricultural fields is among the most prominent sources of ground water contamination (Singh et al., 2014). According to Konradsen et al., (2017), about one-half of the human poisonings occur more in less-developed countries, even though these places account for only 20% of the world’s use of pesticides. Many chemical substances identified as persistent organic pollutants (POPs) under the Stockholm  Convention are still  being used  in  agriculture  and  industry and  these results  in negative health and environmental consequences (Ashburner and Friedrich, 2011).

Today all over the world consumers are becoming increasingly aware of the importance of food safety and are therefore demanding high standards in marketed and processed foods with emphasis also on agricultural practices with minimum detrimental impact on the human health and environment (MOA, 2014). Previous pilot studies on pesticide handling in most developing countries like Nigeria, showed that once the product reaches retailers shelf, level of control is usually very minimal.

According to the latest estimates, approximately 2.36 billion kilograms of Agro Chemicals were used worldwide in 2007, producing a business worth of $40 billion USD – this is a fifty-fold rise in the amounts of Agro Chemicals used internationally since 1950 (Environmental Protection Agency, 2011). Patterns of consumption have been shifting as well in developing countries, their global share of Agro Chemicals use has doubled in the past three decades, going from 20% to 40% (Promise,  2016).  Particularly in  the seven  countries  of the Central  American  Isthmus (Belize, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama), as well as other African countries like Egypt, Kenya, Senegal Burkina Faso and Nigeria, there has been a steady increase in the use of Agro Chemicals, reaching its peak in 2011 with imports of 46 tons kg of active ingredient, which are formulated in 85 plants in these countries (Promise, 2016). Agro Chemicals are a vital component of modern farming. About one-third of the agricultural products in the world are produced by using Agro Chemicals (Liu et al., 2012). Nonetheless, concerns about the impacts of these products on human health have increased over the past several years (Van der Werf, 2016; Wilson and Tisdell, 2011; Pimentel, 2015). Exposure to dangerous Agro Chemicals due to inappropriate use or protection cause a wide range of negative health and environmental effects. Among the possible outcomes, acute poisonings are the most likely to be detected and have been identified as a major health concern in the developing world (Kishi and Ladou, 2011). Acute pesticide poisoning (APP) or clinic cases is the severe poisoning which occurs after exposure to a single dose of pesticide. The appearance of symptoms may be sudden and dramatic or they may be delayed.

Reported symptoms of acute pesticide poisoning include: fatigue, headaches, body aches, skin discomfort, skin rashes, feelings of weakness, circulatory problems, dizziness, nausea, vomiting, impaired vision, cramps, etc., and in severe cases, coma and death (Alavanja et al., 2014). Also, there is evidence that exposure to Agro Chemicals may cause chronic effects on health such as cancer (Kristensen et al., 2016; Hardell, 2013; Gilden et al., 2010), interference with the development of children and fetus during pregnancy (Frederick, 2015; Sanborn et al., 2017) as well as disruption of the reproductive, endocrine, immune and central nervous system (Ascherio et al., 2016; Ismail et al., 2012). There are currently few reliable estimates as to how many people per year suffer from Agro Chemicals related health effects. One of the latest estimates of acute poisoning cases worldwide was done by the WHO/UNEP Working Group on Public.

Health Impact of Agro Chemicals Used in Agriculture in 2010. The global estimate for Agro Chemicals-related health effect was about three million cases of severe poisonings, with 99 percent of these fatalities occurring in developing countries (WHO, 2010). One must keep in mind that these estimates are based on hospital admissions and probably underestimate the actual number of Agro chemicals poisonings. In fact, in developing countries where there is insufficient regulation, lack of surveillance systems, little to no enforcement and inadequate access to information systems, the incidences are presumed to be higher (IFCS, 2013). Studies from developing areas in Central America (El Salvador and Nicaragua) and other African countries (Senegal, Nigeria) have indicated an overall incidence rate of 35 per 100 000 for APP in the general population (Henao and Arbelaez, 2012). Poisoning incidences in agriculture occur even more often as a result of careless handling of Agro Chemicals usually on the part of operator error due to willful negligence, lack of information or lack of training (Koh and Jeyaratnam, 2016;  Reeves  and  Schafer,  2013).  For  example,  leakages  from  joints  in  the  application equipment may often cause farmers to come into direct skin contact with large amounts of a pesticide. Similarly, clogged or unsuitable nozzles on the spraying equipment affect the quality of application and increase the degree of exposure. Changes in the wind speed and direction during spraying can result in chemicals and other pesticides absorption in the respiratory tract. Application on extremely hot and dry days promotes fertilizer and pesticide drift which also increases exposure. Spraying from the air can create a risk for farmers who are not involved in the operation, including the population at large. All the above situations which are common during pesticide application in the farm may result in direct and prolonged exposure of farmers to Agrochemicals which may in turn affect their health. Farmers’ knowledge of the potential hazards of pesticide handling is important for the prevention of exposure to these harmful chemicals. Levels of knowledge regarding routes of exposure to Agro Chemicals and specific health effects of Agro Chemicals may vary considerably among farmers. Studies conducted in the Gaza Strip reported high levels of knowledge on the health impact of Agro Chemicals (Yassin  et  al.,  2012).  Similarly,  good  knowledge  about  the  acute  health  effects  of  Agro Chemicals and their exposure routes have been found among pesticide applicators in Ecuador (Hurtig et al., 2013). Moderate or low levels of knowledge about pathways of absorption of Agro Chemicals and of potential symptoms following exposure were found among farm workers in Egypt (Stewart, 2016), and Ghana (Clarke et al., 2017). Agro Chemicals remain today the choice of many farmers despite the increase of pesticide-related diseases and the presence of alternative methods to control pest such as biological control, genetic control and IPM, because they are cost-effective, easily available, and display a wide spectrum of bioactivity (De A et al., 2014).

Niger State in central Nigeria main economic activities is agricultural related including mixed farming (crops and livestock keeping). Major cash crops include coffee, tea and horticultural production with maize, beans and potatoes grown mainly as food crops (Booker et al., 2009). Major livestock cash enterprises include dairy cows, poultry, pigs, bees with fish farming also being promoted. Pesticides, fertilizers, animal feeds and veterinary drugs are normally purchased through farm inputs retail outlet stockiest commonly known as ―Agrovets in trading centres. The study thus sought to determine the farmers knowledge, attitude and practices with regard to use of agrochemicals in crop production in Baddegi and environs, Niger State and their potential impact on environment and human health.

1.2 Statement of the Research Problem

Several studies have been identified with impacts of agrochemicals on human health and the environment both nationally and internationally and those researchers include Erhunmwunse, Dirisu   and   Olomukoro   (2012);   Aikpokpodion,   Lajide,   Ogunlade,   Ipinmoroti,   Orisajo, Iloyanomon  and  Fademi  (2015);  Ize-Iyamu,  Abia  and  Egwaikhide,  (2011);  Leonila  (2012); Maton (2016) and Gupta (2012). Based on these researches, a gap have been identify which is impact of agrochemicals application on human health and the environment in Baddegi and environs, Niger State, Nigeria. The links between pesticides and human health were suspected as early as the 1960s and 1970s. US epidemiologists observed an unusual rise in Non-Hodgkin‟s Lymphoma in areas of high pesticide use (Gupta, 2012). A number of more recent studies and reviews bring to light some critical health implications of pesticide exposure.

The occurrence of pesticides in our environment as a result of the indiscriminate or intentional use has resulted in its persistence in the environment, thereby affecting the ecosystems and non target organisms in the study area. Acute and chronic pesticide poisoning usually results from consumption of contaminated food, chemical accident in industries and occupational exposure in agriculture. About 15,000 metric tons of pesticides comprising about 135 pesticide chemicals are imported   annually  into   the   country  (Nigeria).   They  are   the   major   causes   of   cancer, cardiovascular disease, dermatitis, birth defects, morbidity, impaired immune function, neurobehavioral disorder and allergy sensitization reaction. In Nigeria, food test carried out on 217 different food items revealed the presence of DDT, Aldrin and Dieldrin to be above maximum allowable concentration level which ranged from 1.2- 2160μg kg-1. The detection of these pesticides in soil, drinking water and other animals is of great interest. The failure to establish data-base from past incidents in order to avert future occurrences has posed a huge problem to the society at large. The need for epidemiological data collection from past exposure, development  of  less  toxic  pesticides  and  legal  requirement  regarding  toxicological  and ecological effect before the importation of pesticides into the country will further reduce the impact of toxic pesticides on human health in the study area (Aikpokpodion et al., 2015).

Farmers tend to rely on pesticides as the primary pest control measure (Horne et al., 2008). While stringent measures are enforced during formulation, manufacture and registration of pesticides, it is the responsibility of the end user or buyer at retail level to ensure the chemical is used as prescribed. However in with increased use of agrochemicals, their safe usage of is increasingly gaining importance globally because of their potential adverse environmental and health effects. The increased use of agrochemicals and in inappropriate methods may be harmful to human and the environment. The study therefore will aim at assessing the farmers, knowledge, attitudes and practices in regard to the use of agrochemicals, types used and sources of information on use of agrochemicals and therefore inform on the environmental and health risks associated with the practices.

Continuous  use of agrochemical  against  agricultural  pest  and  disease  vectors  poses serious threats upon both human health and environment in the study area. It is very difficult to find out the impact of human health and the environment in the study area due to inadequate awareness, training and limited knowledge for using agrochemicals. Agrochemical users in the study area are also vulnerable to agrochemical related health problems due to inadequate regulatory and preventive mechanisms. As such the study will looks into these research problems which are in line with the research question of the study as indicated in section 1.4.

1.3 Justification of the Study

The researcher expects the study outcome to contribute significantly to information and knowledge on the potential risks to the environment and human health arising from the farmers„ use of agrochemicals in their crop farming systems.

The present study will makes an important contribution to an improved understanding of the effects of agrochemicals on the environment and human health in Nigeria-Such an understanding is necessary for training on the safe use of agrochemicals.

The study will generate specific information on the types and quantity of agrochemicals to be used  in  a  specific  area.  The  information  is  important  to  agricultural  extension  officers  to formulate the most economical and safe ways of using agrochemicals in Baddegi Town of Niger State and other parts of Nigeria.

The study will generate information on the impacts of agrochemicals on human health and the environment information can be used by other scholars as literature review form basis for further research.

The research outcome can thus be used by Ministry of Agriculture, agrochemical companies and other stakeholders to raise awareness of the need for safe handling and the use of agrochemicals by the farming communities through training and information dissemination for human and environmental safety. This information will be useful to the government and other stakeholders in developing appropriate policies to enhance environmental and human safety in agrochemicals use for sustainable agricultural production.

1.4 Research Questions

The research questions for this study will include the followings:-

i.      What are the farmers„ knowledge on agrochemicals applications in crop production?

ii.      What are the types and quantities of agrochemicals used by farmers in their major production processes in the study area?

iii.       What are the agrochemicals application impact on human health and environment in the study area?

iv.      What are adaptation strategies on the impact of agrochemical application in the study area?

1.5 Aim and Objectives of the Study

The aim of the research is to examine the impact of agrochemical application on human health and the environment of Badeggi and environs, Niger State, Nigeria. The specific objectives are:

i.      To examine the farmers‟ knowledge on agrochemicals applications in crop production.

ii.      To examine the types and quantities of agrochemicals used by farmers in their major production processes in the study area.

iii.       To analyze the use agrochemical application impact on human health and environment in the study area.

iv.      To examine the adaptation strategies on the impact of agrochemical application in the study area.

1.6 Scope and Limitation of the Study

The scope of this study is concentrated on the impact of agrochemical application on human health  and  the environment  in  Badeggi  and  environs,  Niger State,  Nigeria.  The  study also collected hospital records related to the study area. The study considered health related diseases mention in questionnaire base on agrochemical application in the study area as well as changes farmers have notice in the environment.

1.7 The Study Area

1.7.1 Location of the study area

Baddegi is located within Latitude 90 30” 10N to 90 68” 10N and Longitude 60 50” 23E to 60 90” 13E. It is located at an elevation of 118 meters above sea level and its population amounts to

11,657 in 2015. The area geographically shares boundaries with Edati Local Government to the west of Bida Local Government Area, to the north Bida Local Government, to the east Agaie Local Government and Katcha at the south west (Ndaman, 2011).

The region is dissected by two major rivers that is Kaduna and the river Gbako. The river Kaduna takes its source from the high Hausa plans. River Kaduna is found to the west of the river Gbako, and these two rivers together drains most of the Bida L.G. A., they ultimately drain their contents into the river Niger to the south. The Kaduna and Gbako rivers flow over sedimentary rock for most of their course. They deposit a large amount of sediments on their flood plains and this provides the cultivated filed for guinea corn cultivation in Bida (Ndaman, 2011).

1.7.2 Climate of the study area

The study area experiences distinct dry and wet seasons with annual rainfall varying from

1,100mm in the Northern part of the State to 1,600 mm in the southern parts. The maximum temperature is recorded between March and June, while the minimum is usually between December and January. The rainy season lasts for about 150 days in the Northern parts of about 120 days in the Southern parts of the State. Generally, the climate soil and hydrology of the State permit the cultivation of most of Nigeria‟s staple crops and still allows sufficient opportunities for grazing, fresh water fishing and forestry development. The characteristics of some aspects of rainfall variation in Bida, (study area) in particular in relation to the cultivation of rice in lowland area, are the focus of this study. According to Musa (2016), rainfall amount is not agricultural problem to man but the distribution of the amount on a month to month. The study is located in the northern part of the country, which is characterized by dry season of seven month, usually between October/November and April/May.

1.7.3   Geology of the study area

The geology of the study area falls within the Niger Valley/trough which is believed to be structurally  developed.  During  the  Tertiary  and  possibly  the  interglacial  periods  of  the Quaternary glaciations, the Niger Valleys, otherwise known as the Niger trough, were transgressed  by the  waters  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  As  a  result,  marine  sediments  form  the dominant surface geology of much of Bida Area. The study area is generally under lain by three principal rock units as follows:-

–    Crystalline basement complex.

–    Cretaceous sediments.

–    Alluvial deposits.

(a) Crystalline basement complex

The above rock units have different characteristics and water bearing potentials. About 60% of the study area is under lain by crystalline complex  rocks which  are believed to be of pre-Cambrian age. The basement complex rocks occur in the northern and southern parts of the study area (Adefolalu, 1999). The basement complex rocks have been broadly divided into three groups namely:-

–    Magnetite Gneisses

–    Quartzite and Schist‟s

–    Granite rocks.

Each of the groups can further be subdivided according to composition:-

The  Magnetite  gneisses:-  are  of  the  veined  variety,  which  have  been  formed  by  lit-par-lit injection of foliation planes of metamorphic host rocks, exhibit little met somatic effect on their formation which is often on their formation by veins of granites and pegmatite. The acid component is mostly of quartz fields and granite minerals while the basic components are of intermediate rocks mostly quartz diorite. The schist and quartzite occur in beds or ridges which run in a general NNE-SSW direction as in Zungeru, Kagara, and Shiroro (Adefolalu, 1999).

Granite rocks-is widely spread in Niger State and is of the older granite suite of pa-Africa organic age. Grain size range is from fine to medium. They are exposed in massive or isolated form in part of the state forming highland areas such as Paiko, Kusheriki, Libehi, etc. Crystalline basement complex rocks in their unaltered form are regarded as aquiclude and are of no hydro- geological importance. But secondary processes like deformation and weathering have given these rocks units some degree of porosity and can be regarded as aquifer. Two main aquifer units in the basement complex area are:

(i)        The weathered unconsolidated materials or the over burden or the top residual soil.

(ii)        Partly weathered  and  fractured  basement,  which  is  normally found below  viable aquifer units in the basement complex of the study area are found within the fractured basement. Granite gneisses and magmatic rocks are readily weathered and usually contain fractures and so they store water in weathered and fractured zones. The schist belts on the other hand and dense rocks, which are resistant to weathering and have low permeability. Although they are fractured, little ground water is expected in the areas under lain by such rocks (Adefolalu, 1999).

(b) Cretaceous Sediments

The cretaceous sediments rest uncomfortably on the basement complex. The main formation is the Nupe sand-stone, which comprises fieldspastic sand stones, silt stones and clays deposited in the Niger trough (Green, 2015). Experience from ground water development Agencies in Niger State has shown that Nupe basin or formation contains a large amount of water, but no attempt has so far been made to quantify the reserve. Depth to unconfirmed water is quite variable ranging from only few metres to over 20 meters. Auriferous layers have been met at various depths and there is no rule as to where the best aquifer may be found until detailed hydrological studies on Nupe sand stone aquifer system have been done (Green, 2015). Several rivers and streams traversing the Nupe sand stone are perennial in nature, indicating that they are receiving affluent seepage (base flow) from the aquifer. Regional flow direction is towards the River Niger.

(c)  Alluvial Deposit

A long the bank of major rivers and their tributaries in the study area, recent deposits of alluvia are found. They vary in thickness from a thin cover of sand in the smallest tributary to as thick as 40 meters along the main river valley. Alluvial sediments consist of unconsolidated grounds, fine to coarse sands, silts and clays of recent age. Most of the alluvial deposits in the state are within the flood plain of Rivers, Niger, Kaduna, Gbako, Abba Mariga, and Kontagora. Alluvial sediments are found parallel to the matured stage of the river course where deposition and depositional features are pronounced. As a result of river meander, in  most cases, there is hydraulic continuity between aquifer in alluvial sediment and river bed such that infiltration from the river bed can take place. Alluvial sediment is found parallel to the matured stages of the river courses where deposition and depositional features are pronounced. The plains are generally low lying with pocket of ox-bow lake formed as a result of river meander. In most cases, there is hydraulic continuity between aquifers in alluvial sediments and river bed such that infiltration from the river bed can take place by influent seepage where the ground water level in the aquifer lies below the water level in the river or stream and vice-versa by effluent seepage. Aquifers within the alluvial deposits bordering River Niger, Kaduna and Gbako have considerable yield because of hydraulic continuity with these rivers, the static water level in most of the tube wells range between 0.5 meters to 2.0 meters. The condition is important since it forms the drilling of functional and reliable source of water in the case of irrigation system (Adefolalu, 1999).

1.7.4   Vegetation of the study area

Baddegi  vegetation  is  that  of  the  southern  Guinea  Savannah.  Persistent  clearance  of  the vegetation that led to the development of regrowth vegetation at various levels of several development, but more importantly, parklands with grasses ideal for animal grazing during their early growth. The grasses however grow very tall, coarse and tough on maturity. The scattered trees are mainly those of economic value and include locust bean, shear butter, mango, silk cotton, et cetera. These trees produce valuable fruits, wood and fibre which can be utilized for small scale cottage industries. The current vegetation can be termed the drying era where more defoliation  and  deforestation  give  way  to  Shrub/Sahel  vegetation.  According  to  Adefolalu (1999), this leads to reduction in water shed areas and the surface water bodies are thereby exposed and formed ponds. The vegetation of the state can generally be described as a typical Guinea Savanna with a mixture of trees, shrubs and tall grasses. The southern part of the state encompassing Lavun, Edati, Gbako, Bida, Agaie, Katcha, Mokwa and Lapai Local Government Areas, including the southern parts of Rafi, Mariga, Chanchaga, Gurara and Suleja Local Government Areas, have a relatively dense structure which became dense further south in some parts of Lapai where the tree species are taller and closer. The northern parts of Rijau, Rafi, Magama, Mariga, Shiroro and Rafi Local Government Areas together with some parts of Kontagora and Mashegu Local Government Areas are relatively more open with widely sparse scattered trees amidst grasses. There are fringing forests, in Lavun, Gbako, Edati, Katcha, Bida, Lapai  and  Agaie  Local  Government  Area.  Pocket  of  forests,  occur  in  Chanchaga,  Bosso, Paikoro, Gurara, Rafi, Wushishi and Suleja Local Government Areas (Adefolalu, 1999).

1.7.5    Soil of the study area

The two main types of soils in Bida are the sedimentary belt in the southern and south western extremities of the area and the pre-Cambian basement complex rock country which accounts for more than 80 percent of the area. Like most alluvial soils, the soil in the study area is the flood plain type and is characterized by considerable variations. The soil is of two main types which could be used for agriculture and are rich in minerals for the manufacture of various products. The two types of soil are: The Ku-soil which has little hazards and the Ya-soil which has a better water holding capacity. The plains of the study area have the most fertile soils and the best agricultural lands of all plains of the study area while the high sand content of most soils within the study area accounts for the relatively high erosion status (Green, 2015).

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