EFFECTS OF PHYSICAL AND VIRTUAL LABORATORIES ON LEARNING OUTCOMES IN GEOGRAPHY AMONG SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS IN NORTH CENTRAL NIGERIA

ABSTRACT

This study investigates the Effects of Physical and Virtual Laboratories on Learning outcomes in Geography among Senior Secondary School Students in North Central Nigeria. The study adopts a quasi-experimental research design. Nine research questions were answered, and nine hypotheses were tested in this study. The population of the study was made up of eight hundred and nineteen thousand nine hundred and eight (819,908) students in the Senior Secondary schools in North Central. Cluster sampling, purposive sampling and random sampling were used to select 768 students from twelve co-educational secondary schools in the North Central States of Nigeria that participated in  the  study.  The  schools  were  assigned  to  experimental  groups;  I,  (Physical Laboratory), experimental group II (Virtual Laboratory) and Control Group (Lecture Method). A Geography Achievement Test (GAT) containing 30 – items covering topics in cross section, contour representation of land form and relief features in physical geography was used to collect data for both pre-tests, post-test and retention test, while Questionnaire on Attitude of students Towards Geography (QASG) was used for collecting data on attitude of students towards geography, experts validated the instruments. A Pearson product moment correlation and Crombach alpha formula were used to determine the reliability coefficient of GAT and QASG which yielded 0.76 and 0.70  respectively.  The  data  were  analyzed  using  descriptive  statistics  (mean  and standard deviation), inferential statistics, analysis of variance (ANOVA), Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) and Sidak post hoc test was used. The hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level of significance. The results of the study revealed that there was significant difference in the achievement of the three groups (F (2, 764) = 1654.14, p < 0.05). Also, there was significant difference in the mean retention scores of the three groups (F (1, 264) = 47.85, p < 0.05). Therefore, it was recommended that Physical and virtual laboratories be embraced as teaching strategies for teaching geography concepts in our senior secondary schools because it has been proven to improve students’ achievement in geography.

CHAPTER ONE

1.0       INTRODUCTION

1.1       Background to the Study

The revolution  in  technology has  brought  innovations  into  classroom  teaching and learning. Technology usage in schools today has influenced the way educators plan, design instruction, and assess their students. Similarly, innovations in educational technology have changed systems of communication, learning resources, lesson ideas, professional development, learning productivity and creativity (Garrett, 2015; Falode et al., 2016; Mohammed, 2017). In addition, Mahya (2017) revealed that with the increasing usage of modern technologies, students are becoming better and faster at using innovations.

The current trend among educational technologies has been on increase in their focus towards establishing the effects that technological tools may have on students‘ performance, both academically and behaviourally (Garrett, 2015). Even though specialised devices such as educational games, online simulations, and virtual learning environments have increased in education over the years, academic researchers need to understand better how these technological tools like virtual laboratories can affect learning (Mahya, 2017).

In specific terms, the applications of technologies such as interactive multimedia tools, virtual learning environments, animations, simulations, audio and their applications to delivery  of   instruction   have   grown   tremendously  over   the   past   two   decades. Interestingly, these tools are now proposed and used as instructional delivery models in various disciplines in our secondary schools (Sundara, 2013). Furthermore, Sundara (2013)  opined  that  applying  current  technologies  to  deliver  courses  in  the  science disciplines requires a laboratory component to provide activity-based practices to the learner,  ranging  from  Learning  Management  Systems  (LMSs)  to  virtual  avatars  in digital games and virtual laboratories.

Significantly, physical and virtual laboratories allow learners to visualize, interact, and experiment  with  specific  visual  effects,  such  features  they  may  not  see  in  their traditional face-to-face environment in a science classroom (Trindale & Almeida 2002; Kotsilieris & Dimopoulou, 2013). Categorically, the physical laboratory has a central and distinctive role in science and technology education (Hofstein, 2015).  According to Ratamun and Osman (2018), a physical laboratory is a setting using actual experimental equipment and materials and undergoing ‗hands-on‘ activities where students hold and experience practical experiences like scientists. This type of laboratory makes it easy for students to change concepts from concrete to abstract and help them to connect the idea with the real world. It implies that a physical laboratory is a place of practical work activities  where  science  students  manipulate  and  observe  objects  and  materials  in science and technology.

Science and technology educators believe that physical laboratories are the most important instruction in science since the 19th century.   For science to be taught effectively and adequately, physical laboratories must be an integral part of the science curriculum (National Science Teachers Association, 2009).

In addition, a physical laboratory is a workplace for scientific research; it is where a student develops scientific thinking, conducts scientific investigations, and obtain knowledge of physical principles and experimental techniques through the usage of equipment. At different levels of education, starting from senior secondary school to the university  level,  science  laboratories  are  designed  with  specific  goals,  including enhancing the understanding of scientific concepts, interests and motivations, practical skills,  and  problem-solving  abilities  (Russell  &  Weaver,  2011).  The  role  of  the laboratory is central in secondary school Geography courses; students construct and develop a personal understanding of Geographic ideas. This type of knowledge is designed by students in interactions using experiments and practical skills. Meaningful learning  will  occur  when  laboratory  activities  become  a  well-integrated  part  of  a learning sequence. In traditional laboratory experiments, students have direct physical involvement with laboratory materials to study the observable facts of the real world. Research  and  experience  suggest  that  these  laboratory  activities  promote  optimal learning for students (Tracy, 2009; Garrett, 2015).

Physical laboratories have a long tradition within science classrooms, both within secondary and higher education settings. They have been used to assist students with any combination of the three major goals of science classrooms: learning science (developing conceptual knowledge), learning about science (building an understanding of the nature and methods of science), and doing science (engaging in the scientific inquiry) (Garrett, 2015).

Likewise, Hofstein (2015) defined physical laboratory activities as learning experiences in which students interact with materials or models to observe and understand the natural world. This assertion implies that to understand the nature of science, students ought to experience learning in laboratory settings where they can use tools as evidence to conclude the phenomena they observe. The practice of going through a well-designed laboratory  enables  students  to  appreciate  the  process  of  gaining  knowledge  by navigating through a series of steps and using the available tools to complete the given tasks. The process through which every researcher thrives in modern society is fundamentally based on making decisions. It is also important for every student to recognize  the  cause  and  effect  relationship  in  communicating  opinions  that  make science education a crucial part of any individual‘s educational experience (Marincola, 2006). For future generations to become independent thinkers, they need to think like scientists  and  understand  how science functions  as  part  of their daily lives.  Using available science laboratory equipment to conduct an experiment and make sense of what the results mean allows students to view science and technology education as a process of learning and reflecting.  Using laboratory equipment to conduct experiments allows students to gain the 21st-century skills necessary to become future problem solvers  and  active  participants  in  society  (National  Science  Teachers  Association, 2009).

Science laboratories play a vital role in promoting positive attitudes toward science and enhancing students‘ interest in science as well (Luketic & Dolan, 2013). Although making science laboratories part of the everyday curriculum may sound appealing, many educators and practitioners face challenges when educational resources such as laboratory equipment become limited (Quigley, 2014).

Similarly, Garrett (2015), on the other hand, sees Physical laboratory environments, which  consist  of  real-world  materials  and  equipment,  and  computer  simulations  – digital, dynamic, interactive representations of phenomena or processes. Over the past few decades, several research studies have attempted to investigate the value of using physical laboratory environments and virtual laboratory environments within science classrooms  to  support  students‘  conceptual  understanding  (Olympiou  &  Zacharia, 2012). Though much of the researches on physical and virtual science investigations have treated physical experimentations and computer simulations as competing methods in science classrooms (Jaakkola & Nurmi, 2008), recent research also showed that virtual and physical laboratories each has unique but somewhat overlapping affordances for learning, and several authors are beginning to suggest that a combination of physical and virtual laboratories should be considered in science classrooms (Olympiou & Zacharia, 2012)

A virtual laboratory is perceived by Falode (2014), Chaurura and Chuma (2015) as an interactive environment without real laboratory apparatuses meant for creating and conducting  simulated  experiments.  Similarly,  a  Virtual  laboratory  is  viewed  by Ratamun and Osman (2018) as computer-assisted teaching through the integration of identified simulations with laboratory activities. The virtual laboratory can change abstract teaching into concrete, linking the concepts learned with everyday life, and students can learn at their own pace and needs. It is a tool that students can use to run their experiments using the mouse to control physical actions such as pushing objects, turning objects,  lifting  objects,  changing tools  or materials,  measuring  fabrics,  and mixing two materials. Animation and simulation in a virtual laboratory allow students to interact with materials and apparatus to see the results of the reactions in an experiment. Given these, Virtual Laboratory enhances the interaction of teachers and students during an investigation and could also save the cost of doing experiments compared to physical Laboratory (Ismail, 2011). Hence, it provides students with tools and materials on a computer to perform experiments saved on CDs or websites (Nurmi, 2008; Babateen, 2011).  An  example  of  a  virtual  laboratory  is  a  collection  of  digital  simulations supported by discussion forums, video demonstrations, hyperlinked glossaries, and e- mail lists organized in a World Wide Web format or on a CD in a shell produced by an authoring language.

Falode (2014) categorized virtual laboratory into five enclaves based on different sorts of simulations. They are; classical simulations which have some aspects of laboratory experiments and are available locally (Simulations); classical simulations which have some aspects of laboratory experiments and are accessible on the web and are known as JAVA-Applets (Cyber Labs); simulations that attempt to represent laboratory experiments as closely as possible (Virtual Labs); simulations of lab experiments using virtual reality techniques (VR Labs); and real experiments which are controlled via the internet (Remote Labs).

The roles of virtual laboratory in the teaching and learning process cannot be over- emphasized. Therefore,  Ay and Yilmaz (2015) opined that virtual experiments could be used in different contexts and steps to increase the accessibility of laboratory activities and to assist students who previously had no access to the physical laboratory. Such limits  may  emanate  from  a  student‘s  reduced  dexterity,  physical  disability,  or geographic distance (Chaurura & Chuma 2015). The virtual laboratory makes students active in their learning, provides opportunities for students to construct and understand complex concepts more easily (Gambari et al., 2012).

Furthermore, Physical and Virtual technologies combine physical objects, actions, and environments with digital representations, either through augmenting the physical world with  virtual  attributes  or by augmenting a virtual  environment  with  aspects  of the physical world (Garrett, 2015). By integrating physical actions and objects with virtual representations of cotour, gradients, and cross-section in physical Geography, learning environments can expand upon the range of possible actions and sensory-motor experiences within the learning environment. Zufferey et al. (2009) and Lindgren and Johnson-Glenberg (2013) suggested that these innovative technologies can bridge the ―abstraction gap‖ between everyday experience and abstract understanding by creating a controlled context for physical interaction with content from which abstract concepts can be built.

The use of both physical and virtual environments is helpful in Geography contexts, where the virtual representations can shape how students interpret the physical world. The virtual laboratory approach has assisted in the development of a particular type of interactive animation and computer simulations, especially in the field of Geography in secondary schools.

Geography is viewed by Iwena, (2017) as the study of people, their activities, place, and physical things within the earth. Analysts in Geography still concentrate on people, culture, and planet earth. The earth elements are the area physical geographers, and their work incorporates research about atmospheres, arrangement of area structures, plant and animal dispersion.

Geography has application in different endeavours; geographers organize new groups, choose where new high ways should be, set up migration plans. New nation-states formed, disasters strike populated territories, environmental change, and the internet bring many persons closer together. There is continually something new to research in Geography.   On this note, Rosenberg (2014) further asserted that investigating geographical features allows students to comprehend the world in which they live.

Geography has continued to play a significant role in national development. It is taught in schools to offer learners a sound knowledge of their immediate environment and develop the ability to comprehend and give details of natural occurrences. Obondo et al. (2013) opined that  Geography is  a subject  that  develops  learners‘  critical  thinking ability and understands spatial relationships among various features on the earth’s surface, most notably in problem-solving and further prediction of the environmental phenomenon.

Today, more than ever, various fields of knowledge are dependent on Geography for solving problems and predicting the outcome of our environment. Cochran et al. (2015) opined that it is the science of place and space; as such, it emphasizes where things are situated on the surface of the earth, why they are located where they are, how locations vary from one another, and how people relate with the environment. Also, Geography is exclusive in linking the social sciences (Human Geography) with the natural sciences (Physical Geography).

Rosenberg (2014) noted that hardly any aspect of our lives is not affected, often in an ultimate and far-reaching way, by the product of Geography. When one thinks of the environment, the climate, the land forms, plant and animal distribution, and the impact of the environment on our lives, one realizes that we are, in fact, in a ―Geographical universe. The National Policy on Education (FRN, 2009) described Geography as one of the elective subjects in the school curriculum.

The Nigerian Educational System has reliably under-gone sweeping changes. The old educational program was enhanced in nature, emphasis was put on Science, Pre- Vocational and Performance based learning, these progressions manifest in the introduction of the 6-3-3-4 organisation of education. Sofowora and Agbedokun (2010), revealed that the recent reorganization and the improvement of the Geography educational module and recent appropriation of the new 6-3-9 system of education at the Senior Secondary levels are extremely remarkable parts of these changes, resulting from these, educators are not more concerned simply with turning out students who are stacked with certainties and wordings in Geography (Sofowora & Agbedokun, 2010).

Today, the educational program had changed, it has turned into a matter of examination, enquiry and experiential. Emphasis was not laid on the importance of Geography to life and that is why unlike other core science subject like physics, chemistry and biology, geography is not taught at the junior secondary school. Also, emphasis was not placed to the use of geography laboratories in our secondary schools as it was the case in natural science subjects. The aspect the school proprietors and government consider important in the teaching of geography in the past was emphasis on geographical garden where instrument such as the wind vane, rain gauge, Thermometer were usually found.

The modern trend in the teaching of the natural science with the emphasis on the use of the ICT-based tools and strategies such as physical and virtual laboratories has actually proved that other allied science disciplines such as Geography could also be better taught by adopting or and adapting same strategies. The introduction of such discipline as Geophysics has moved Geography from ambivalent field of study to science.

It is observed that in our secondary schools there is almost non-existence of Geography Laboratory, even if it exists in some schools they are not adequately maintained and equipped. All these call for seeking an alternative means through which Geography should  be taught.  At  senior  secondary schools,  students  are  given  choice to  study Geography as a core subject (FRN, 2009). Geography is one of the science subjects taught at the senior secondary school level of education in Nigeria. The importance of Geography and geographic studies cannot be over emphasised (Aderogba, 2005; Fellmnan et al., 2005; Aderogba & Ogunnowo, 2010). Aside from it being offered at the SSS for Senior Secondary School Certificate Examination, it is a subject taught at the tertiary level and it links with a few other school subjects to make individual an expert. The West African School Certificate Examination Council (WAEC) has been assessing its syllabi over the course of the years to reflect contemporary issues, react to open issues and adjust to realities of time (Aderogba & Ogunnowo, 2010). The National Examination  Council  (NECO,  2004)  likewise  prepared  its  syllabus  nearly  to  the WAEC’s which shows areas of interest of Geography syllabus as provided by the two national examination bodies and actualized by schools and universities.

The breakdown of the content of Geography syllabus is grouped into four areas specifically:  Elements  of  Practical  Geography  (Map  Work);  Physical  Geography; Human Geography; Regional Geography (Sofowora & Agbedokun, 2010). Geography is  the study of  man-environment  relationship;  (Hansen,  et  al.,  2007).  The primary objectives of Geography education to provide insights into the relationship between common conditions and social activities in distinctive parts of the world and to show a related spatially-arranged ability that can be applied (Hemmer & Hemmer 2017). In accordance with these aims, students of Geography have the ability to perceive collaborations in relationship between the nature and society (economy, governmental issues, and social perspectives) taking into account various regional examples, they can likewise figure out how to comprehend the subsequent structures, procedures and issues included with these associations and to consider answers for these issues. To this end, a comprehension of the Earth as a framework is essential which is the different characteristic frameworks and subsystems of the geosphere.

Hemmer and Hemmer (2017) further found that Geography is centralizing a subject for all parts of geosciences relevant to schools which can improve comprehension of social frameworks in  their  fundamental  spatially applicable  essential  structures.  With  this general geographical approach, Geography lessons make an exceptional commitment to the consolation of multi-viewpoint, systematic and critical thinking consideration. Students along these lines secure spatial orientation skills, and additionally examine areas of the Earth at distinctive scales for example, their country and different spots from alternate points of view and as to different issues (Hemmer & Hemmer 2017). Hence, students have the opportunity to be acquainted with various traditional and computerized media subsequently securing a methodological skill that is crucial for self-decided learning, field outings, and projects makes conceivable the consideration of reality outside of school and students own dynamic encounters. Furthermore, it was included that Geography as a school subject makes a significant contribution to interdisciplinary  and  co-operative  assignments  in  education.  Besides,  Students  gain from examples of numerous ecological subjects, both at home and far away. Hemmer and Hemmer (2017), observed education in development policy and intercultural learning as relevant aspects of Geography teaching in schools. By considering nature, economics, political and social interaction, students acquire important competences in these areas. Because of its contents and importance, Geography is mainly committed to education  for  sustainable  improvement  as  well  as  to  Global  Learning.  The  aims, methods and contents of map reading which is an aspect of physical Geography creates the foundations for connectible vocational education in many professional areas for example,  in  planning,  environmental  protection,  tourism  and  public  and  private economic development. Iwena (2017), revealed that the idea was intended to contextualize learning, connect regular encounters to the classroom, and raise the familiarity with traditional African sensibilities among students.

Even though, geography play a vital role in contemporary society; more emphasis is placed on Science, Vocational and trade subjects, these progressions manifest in the introduction of the 6-3-9 system of education for instance, in the present Nigeria educational system, Geography is one of the subjects required for admission in environmental-related courses in our institutions of higher learning yet it is not offered at the junior classes in our secondary schools. It is in the realization of its essential role that many countries now resorted to making special comprehensive and well- programmed efforts toward the effective teaching and learning of Geography at various levels of the educational system through the development and implementation of innovative programs and projects (Tasiu, 2012). As geography laboratories allow learners to visualize, interact, and experiment with specific visual effects in Geography, both physical and virtual laboratories will significantly enhance learning outcomes.

Learning outcomes in this study entails students‘ academic achievement, attitude and retention. Achievement is, thus, the outcome of students‘ results in subjects taken in a particular situation. Despite efforts put by teachers to effectively teach Geography in secondary schools, the result from the performance in senior secondary examination is not satisfactory. Obondo et al. (2013) revealed that prevailing poor achievement by students in Geography is as a result of misinterpretations they hold about a few topics in Geography and instructional mode. Obondo et al. (2013) concluded that general utilization of lecture method and integration of recent technological inventions in teaching alleviated the circumstance of low enrolment and adjusted to expect national quality and standard in Geography.

Also, secondary school students complained about Geography, especially; its physical aspect as complex. Therefore, some components such as physical geography remain challenging to instructors as students do not score well in such components (Obondo et al., 2013). It means that the basic foundation of Geography is very weak, which is carried forward to the final class, which has led to poor academic performance in Senior Secondary School Certificate Examination (SSCE), West African Examinations Council (WAEC), and National Examinations Council (NECO).

The table in (Appendix B, page 206) illustrates the chief examiners‘ report for both WAEC and NECO. The record is specifically the chief examiner report released by both the National Examinations Council and West African Examination Council (NECO 2005-2010,   WAEC   2008-2018)   depicting   candidates‘   areas   of   weaknesses   in Geography. Also, the analysis of results in (Appendix C; Page 207) released by WAEC between 2003-2013 revealed fluctuation in the number of passes in the Geography Examinations within these periods.

Many researchers have come up with practical reasons on the causes of students‘ poor achievement in secondary school Geography. For instance, Sofowora and Agbedokun (2010), Obondo et al. (2013), NECO 2009-2010 observed that the study of Geography from its inception was through oral explanation of geographic features, which made the lesson very theoretical and quite tedious. Also, the undue emphasis on the theoretical aspect of Geography to the detriment of scientific and experiential approach had made the subject very unclear and boring such that the subject is somewhat abstract, particularly among students at secondary school level in Nigeria. Geography seems to be the most challenging subject to teach. As put forward by Sofowora and Agbedokun (2010), some of the reasons are the nature of the subject and how the subject is taught. It is believed that Geography is taught in a way that discourages open questions, inquiry, and active participation.

The resultant effect of all the above is that the subject no longer attracts young students due to the dull, uninspiring, and stereotyped approaches adopted (Sofowora & Agbedokun, 2010). Similarly, the immediate effect of utilizing the lecture method on learners regularly prompts the absence of comprehension, which may bring about poor achievement and low enrollment of students in Geography (Onasanya et al.,2003). Also the chief examiners‘ report of National Examination Council (NECO) observed that the problems affecting achievement in Geography can be attributed to lack of qualified teachers to handle the subject. This has resulted to  poor teaching delivery method of presenting the content of the curriculum to students and, non-availability of facilities (NECO Chief Examiners‘ Report, 2010).

Consequently, Sofowora and Egbedokun (2013) advocated for a change in instructional delivery modes. Physical and virtual laboratories as modes of instruction may be of paramount importance in teaching Geography in Nigerian schools. Because of these, a lot of studies have been carried out with respect to the use of laboratory approach; the approach is regarded as an indispensable element of education, students subjected to laboratory instruction exhibit higher achievement scores, deeper attention, and more frequent participation in science courses (Gunes et al., 2011).

Ho (2009); Falode (2014) suggested that one way to bring about more practical change in the attitude of learners to science subject is by using student-centered approach through the integration of computer technology approach to teaching and learning process. These approaches can bring about positive attitudinal change and retention of Geography concepts.

According to Obi et al. (2014), retention is the ability to recall things. In confirmation of this, Akor (2017) stressed that among the features of retention closely associated with achievement are the power to remember (memorize) and identify. Memory, in this case, is the ability to recollect an impression of past experiences. Akor (2017) further categorizes memory based on how learning took place and retrieval of learned items. In continuation of this, Iji (2010) emphasizes the fact that man is gifted with restricted ability for memorizing and to efficiently and adequately apply all that he has learned for which retention must have come to play an important role, Furthermore, Gana (2013) and Ismail (2015) describe retention as a preservative factor of the mind and a repeat of performance of a task of learned behaviour earlier acquired. Modern  studies  on  the  effects  of  an  instructional  package  on  students’  retention indicated that instructional package enhances the retention of students as compared to the lecture method of instruction (Ismail, 2015). Given these, Hussaini and Ali (2012) revealed that students’ long-term retention of concepts reported that 67 % observed after 12 months of using recent technologies. Similarly, Akengin (2011) noted a mean difference in retention scores between the group of students taught with modern technologies and those instructed with conventional methods.

Consequent to the above assertion much needs to be done because knowledge retention is an essential ingredient of learning. Several factors are responsible for adequate retention of learned materials, according to Ismail (2015). These include manipulation of the learning tool and the instructional method adopted. Research evidence continues to  accumulate  in  support  of  the  idea  that  students’  visual  learning  and  active involvement in the lesson could be more powerful than verbal communication alone (Yisa, 2014). Despite the above statements, much need to be done by making learning more interactive to the students using various interactive packages; this could, in turn, enhance the attitude of secondary school students towards geography.

Attitudes in the teaching and learning process are enduring positive or negative assessments, sincere feelings, and tendencies regarding social objects. The attitude was also a settled behaviour or acting, representing feeling or opinion. It refers to a certain predisposition to act or react positively or negatively towards certain situations and ideas (Issa et al., 2013).

Attitude  likewise  represents  an  individual  level  of  preferences  or  aversions  for something. That is why attitude towards a subject will enormously influence a person’s engagement; due to the rapid changes in science and technology in today‘s world, new methods, and techniques needed for science teaching. An essential teaching technique is experimental techniques. This technique involves all the senses and enables learning to be more meaningful. This technique will be more effective if students‘ attitude towards science is more positive. The use of laboratories in experimental techniques have led to more outstanding achievement and sincerely improve students‘ attitudes toward science subject, as lab experiments have a big role in education by providing a genuine interactive model for students. (Ratamun & Osman (2018).

Information on whether students’ attitude towards science improves students‘ academic achievement is less clear based on the controversial findings from the literature. Nicolaidou and Philippou (2003) observed that a learner developed a positive attitude towards science subjects during the first time in school, yet, as they advance, their attitudes assume less positive and frequently become negative at high school. Negative attitudes are the outcome of regular and recurrent challenges when addressing tasks, and these might become somewhat steady if measures are not taken (Petty, 2018). Many circumstances explain why learners‘ attitude to science turns out to be negative with the school grade. The reasons include; the tension to perform excellently, over-demanding tasks,  uninteresting  lessons,  and  less  positive  attitudes  on  the  part  of  teachers (Nicolaidou & Philippou, 2003).

Bowen and Richman (2007) conceptualized an attitude as a mix of an  individual’s surveyed decision around a given element. The relationship between attitude and achievement as viewed by Bowen and Richman (2007) found in the theory of reasoned action. According to the theory, when individuals are positively disposed to an object or conduct referred to, they can take up the item or behaviour. Similarly buttressed by Nwagbo (2018), the advancement of the right mentality to learning by both male and female students is pivotal to achieving good academic achievement in science subjects at senior secondary school.

One of the most recurring issues among educators, especially science educators and society, is gender equity or gender friendliness in teaching and learning (Ismail 2015). Gender is an attribute that affects students‘ achievement in science subjects at senior secondary school (Gambari, 2010). The issue of students‘ achievement as a cause of the discrepancy in learning outcome has drawn the attention of educational researchers. It is a common attribute in most educational settings to find students of mixed academic aptitude given the same treatment. Gender issues always had link with students’ performance in an academic task in several studies, some of which are those conducted by Ismail (2015) but without any definite conclusion. This trend of gender imbalances in academic achievement and retention necessitates more work.

In view of the above, the sole interest of researchers is the usual gender differences and -their impact on several phases of human activities (Dangpe, 2015). The findings of Yusuf and Onasanya (2004); Ajai and Imoko (2015) show significant differences in academic achievement based on gender, while other results indicated that gender factors did  not  affect  students‘  academic  achievements.  Ifamuyiwa  (2004),  Preckel  et  al. (2008), Kovas et al. (2015), and Musa et al. (2016) in their separate researches show that male students outperform their female counterparts in science-related subjects at secondary  school  level.  In  contrast,  Olson  (2002),  Gimba  (2003),  Anagboju  and Ezehiora (2007), and Contini et al. (2016) noted that female students outperformed their male partners. Other researches such as Orabi (2007), Iwendi and Oyedum (2014), Egorova (2016) revealed no gender differences in achievement of males and females in mathematics and science subjects. However, on a larger scale, research such as Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) has found that ―there were no gender differences in 22 of the 42 countries that tested at Year 8, including Australia‖ (Thomson et al. 2012). For these reasons, there is a need to investigate gender differences in the Nigerian school context. Based on the present trend in the world and attention  given  to  gender  matters  in  the  millennium  statement  of  September  2000 (United Nations, 2000), which has it as its aims, the advancement of gender equity, women empowerment, and the eradication of gender disparity in elementary and secondary education and at entire levels by 2015 with a view of suggesting possible intervention strategies.

All together call for seeking a substitute through which Geography should be taught, in light of these, this study investigated the effects of physical and virtual laboratories on learning outcomes in Geography among senior secondary school students in North Central Nigeria.

1.2       Statement of the Research Problem

Geography as one of the central subjects for all components of geosciences and a requirement  for  admission  into  environmental-related  courses  in  our  institutions  of higher learning, students‘ achievement is unsatisfactory. Previous researches by Falode et al. (2015); Falode et al. (2016); Amosun (2016); Eze (2020) pertaining students’ outcomes in Geography have indicated the undeserving, poor, and discouraging performance of Nigerian secondary school students.

Following this assertion, the researcher projected that among other factors responsible for the trend of students‘ unsatisfactory performance in West Africa Examination Council (WAEC) to be the teaching methodology, as substantiated by Odili (2006); Idoko (2009). West Africa Examination Council Chief Examiner‘s report in (2008), (2010), (2013), and (2018) had linked students’ failure in geography to an inadequate explanation of points, inadequate preparation, poor presentation of geographic features. As presented by the report, other factors leading to failure in geography include an ineffective description of concepts required to be taught practically, making its concepts highly theoretical and difficult for the students to comprehend. Similarly, Sofowora and Agbedokun (2010) observed that the study of Geography from its inception was through a verbal description of geographical features, which made the lesson very abstract and relatively uninteresting.

unlike other core science subject like physics, chemistry and biology, geography is not taught at the junior secondary school level and that is why students found it difficult to comprehend making it an abstract subject at senior secondary classes. Again, emphasis was not placed to the use of geography laboratories in our secondary schools as it was the case in natural science subjects. The aspect the school proprietors and government consider important in the teaching of geography in the past was emphasis on geographical garden where instrument such as the wind vane, rain gauge, thermometer were usually found. The modern trend in the teaching of the natural science with the emphasis on the use of the ICT-based tools and strategies such as computer simulation, animation  and  virtual  laboratories  has  actually  proved  that  other  allied  science disciplines such as Geography could also be better taught by adopting or and adapting same  strategies.  The  introduction  of  such  discipline  as  Geophysics  has  moved Geography from ambivalent field of study to science.

It  is  also  observed  that  in  our secondary schools  there is  almost  non-existence of Geography Laboratory, even if it exists in some schools they are not adequately maintained and equipped. All these call for seeking an alternative means through which Geography should be taught.

This has become a source of concern to all stakeholders in Nigerian education system, as most teachers in Nigeria that teach Geography particularly, Physical aspect of Geography across secondary school stages, (SS I to S,S III) have decried less emphasis and  the effectiveness  of  methods  used in  the teaching and  learning of  the subject (Sofowora & Agbedokun, 2010). Those who teach topics like urban and regional planning  and  environmental  studies  that  require  the  application  of  Geography also complained of the challenges they face. As stated in the NECO Chief Examiners Report of 2009, one of such challenges was the method and little knowledge of the content of the  Geography  syllabus  and  general  phobia  for  questions  that  require  diagrams, sketches, and charts in the physical aspect of Geography.

Also, the undue emphasis on the theoretical aspect of Geography to the detriment of the scientific and experiential approach had made the subject unclear and uninteresting. Of all the subjects in the school curriculum at the secondary level in Nigeria, Geography seems to be a complex subject to teach. Some of the reasons for these are the nature of the subject and how it is taught. The common method of teaching Geography is the lecture method. The approach contradicts the provision of the new education policy because students cannot discover facts for themselves, and they are not motivated to be creative and active.

Despite the widespread application of various effective interactive strategies like simulation and animation packages to improve classroom instruction in Nigeria, the trend persisted. Following these, Literature appeared to prove that there has been insufficient research that specifically examines the effects of Physical and Virtual Laboratories on learning outcomes in Geography among senior secondary school students in North Central Nigeria. Consequently, to the researcher‘s knowledge, from the  reviewed  work,  none  of  the  studies  seek  to  address  the  issue  of  contour representation of landforms, cross-section, and relief features in Physical Geography in North Central Nigeria. Therefore, to address these problems, a more interactive strategy that will actively involve the students in the Geography lesson becomes imperative. Hence, the strategy that might salvage the situation may be the use of physical and virtual laboratories. Therefore, the study investigates the effects of Physical and Virtual Laboratories  on  learning  outcomes  in  Geography  among  senior  secondary  school students in North Central, Nigeria.

1.3       Aim and Objectives of the Study

This  study  aims  to  determine  the  effects  of  Physical  and  Virtual  Laboratories  on learning outcomes in Geography among senior secondary school students in North- Central, Nigeria. Specifically, the study intends to achieve the following objectives;

1.   Determine  the  effects  of  physical  laboratory  (PL),  virtual  laboratory  (VL)  and lecture  method  (LM)  on  the  achievement  of  secondary  school  students  in geography.

2. Examine the influence of gender on the academic achievement of students in geography when taught using physical laboratory.

3.   Investigate the influence of gender on the academic achievement of students in geography when taught using virtual laboratory.

4.   Determine the effects of physical laboratory, virtual laboratory and lecture method

on students‘ retention in Geography.

5.   Find  out  the  influence  of  gender  on  the  retention  scores  of  students  taught

Geography when exposed to physical laboratory.

6.   Find  out  the  influence  of  gender  on  the  retention  scores  of  students  taught

Geography when exposed to virtual laboratory.

7.   Determine  the  attitude  of  secondary  school  Geography  students  taught  using physical laboratory, virtual laboratory and those taught with lecture method.

8.   Find out whether gender influences the attitude of Geography students towards geography after being exposed to physical laboratory.

9.   Find out whether gender influences the attitude of Geography students towards geography after being exposed to virtual laboratory

1.4       Research Questions

The following research questions were raised for the study.

1.   Is there any difference in the mean achievement scores of Geography students taught using physical laboratory, virtual laboratory, and those taught with lecture method?

2.   Is there any difference in the mean achievement scores of male and female

Geography students taught Geography using a physical laboratory?

3.    Is there any difference in the mean achievement scores of male and female

Geography students taught Geography using virtual laboratory?

4.   What is the difference in the mean retention scores of students taught Geography using physical laboratory, virtual laboratory, and lecture method?

5.   Could there be any difference in the mean retention scores of male and female students taught Geography using physical laboratory?

6.   Could there be any difference in the mean retention scores of male and female students taught Geography using virtual laboratory?

7.   What is the difference in the mean attitude score of Geography students taught using physical laboratory, virtual laboratory and those taught with lecture method?

8.   Would there be any difference in the mean attitude scores of male and female students to Geography after being taught using physical laboratory?

9.   Would there be any difference in the mean attitude scores of male and female students to Geography after being taught using virtual laboratory?

1.5       Research Hypotheses

The  following  null  hypotheses  were  formulated  and  tested  at  0.05  alpha  level  of significance.

HO1: There is no significant difference in the mean achievement scores of Geography Students taught using physical laboratory, virtual laboratory and those taught with lecture method.

HO2:  There is no significant difference in the mean achievement scores of male and female students taught Geography using physical laboratory.

HO3:  There is no significant difference in the mean achievement scores of male and female students taught Geography using virtual laboratory.

HO4:  There is  no significant  difference in  the  mean  retention  score of Geography student  after  being  taught  using  physical  laboratory,  virtual  laboratory  and lecture method.

HO5: There is no significant difference in the mean retention score of male and female

Geography student taught using physical laboratory.

HO6: There is no significant difference in the mean retention score of male and female

Geography student taught using virtual laboratory.

HO7: There is no significant difference in the mean attitude scores of students towards Geography after being taught using physical laboratory, virtual laboratory and those     taught with lecture method.

HO8: There is no significant difference in the mean attitude scores of male and female students towards Geography after being taught using physical laboratory.

HO9: There is no significant difference in the mean attitude scores of male and female students towards Geography after being taught using virtual laboratory.

1.6       Significance of the Study

The findings of this research will be of immense benefit to the following group of people; Students, Teachers, Educational Administrators, Parents, Researchers, Curriculum planers, Educational Technologists, Non-Governmental Organizations (NGO‘s), amongst others, The study will enable students to learn and build their knowledge structures by investigating and discovering since learning through virtual laboratories (VL) and Physical Laboratories (PL) are student-centred and participatory. The use of the above strategies will also make learning authentic, concrete and develop the students in practising the basic needed skills in learning geography and learning at their own pace and time. The development and construction of VL and PL can make students develop a positive attitude towards Geography and creative skills in manipulating computers and inculcate the behavioural intention to study Geography and Geography related courses in tertiary institutions of learning.

Also, the result  will be beneficial to students  by exposing them to better learning strategies that will improve understanding of difficult concepts in Geography. This shall improve their academic achievement in the subject and also enhance students‘ interest in Geography. The VL will readily be available and affordable to the learners, thus enabling them to learn individually or collectively.

Geography teachers in  all Secondary Schools  will see the need for and  appreciate favourable teaching strategies like physical and virtual laboratory and use them for the classroom instructions to promote and enhance active involvement of  students and provide opportunities for learners to understand difficult and abstract concepts in Geography.  This  would  assist  in  reducing  the  misconceptions  already  formed  by students that Geography is a difficult subject as stated in the waec chief examiner report. The training of the teachers by the researchers may impact positively on the capacity building of teachers and therefore encourage them as depicted by physical and virtual laboratories. Geography teachers will be more resourceful in making use of innovative media instructional delivery which may lead to students‘ achievement, attitude, and intention to pursue Geography and Geography related courses in higher institutions of learning.

The findings of this research will assist the education administrators to provide in- service  training  for  their  teachers  to  make  them  more  effective  and  efficient  in knowledge transmission to the learners which may enhance students‘ performance in Geography.  Non-governmental organizations (NGOs)  will see the relevance of this research and be able to provide assistance to the schools by retraining teachers on development of VL packages and the need for other instructional materials to promote learning in schools and thus, the problem of poor performance will be reduced.

To  the  researchers,  the  findings  of  this  research  would  be  expected  to  serve  as  a reference to science and technology educators and Geography education researchers. This study could provide useful information upon which future research studies in PL and VL and other teaching strategies can be based. It may provide practical evidence in their search for further research studies in other interactive teaching and learning strategies.

The results of this research may also serve as a guide to policy makers such as Joint Consultative Council on Education (JCCE), National Council on Education (NCE), and National Commission for Colleges of Education (2009) and National Universities Commission (NUC) including stakeholders on the implementation of proper multimedia instruction policy particularly at the secondary school level. It is hoped that the results will also enable the government and educational authorities to be conscious of the need to sponsor Geography teachers for training in the application of multimedia for teaching and learning in order to enhance their skills in the use of instructional equipment and materials. This therefore, will enable the government to appreciate the need to provide instructional materials, such as simulation instructional packages for teaching and learning  Geography in  schools.  The  research  results  will  among  others  enable  the curriculum planners to be guided during reviews of Geography curriculum in order to make provision for multimedia based curriculum.

Parents,   through   Parent   Teachers   Association   (PTA)   and   non-governmental organization will be able to buy relevant books and multimedia packages that illustrate important concepts in Geography and also assist the government in providing good study environment for students through self-help efforts.

To the government, the research may be of enormous help because the result that will be obtained from this study will assist both the Federal and State Ministry of Education to plan policies that will make the study of computer science compulsory right from primary school level through secondary to tertiary levels in order to achieve scientific and technological advancement through science and technology.

Again, the study will keep the developers of curriculum abreast with the current pedagogical instructional needs of the learners which include knowledge acquisition through  scientific  and  technological  tools,  thereby introducing  computer innovative programs in schools so that the application of ICT becomes the media for instruction in the classrooms.

To the nation, the findings of the study will be of great importance in the equipping students and teachers with current technology in the aspect physical geography in order for them to meet up with the challenges of teaching difficult concept in physical geography in Nigerian schools in the current dispensation. This study may also serve as the hallmark for future educators, scientists and technologists who will be interested in conducting similar studies in other spheres of knowledge.

The package will be uploaded CD and be distributed among the schools in the zone to enable teachers have access to it and further create awareness on the need to inculcate the physical and virtual laboratory strategies into the teaching and learning of physical geography. Also, the instructional technology designers, and evaluators, educational media centres, educational resource centres will be in a better position to purchase and keep VL and PL as exhibition materials in the educational media centres.

Finally, the findings will add to the already existing literature on the effects of physical and virtual laboratories on learning outcomes in geography among senior secondary school students in North Central Nigeria thereby assisting upcoming researchers.

1.7       Scope of the Study

The study was carried out to investigate the effects of Physical and Virtual Laboratories on learning outcomes in Geography among Senior Secondary School Students in North Central Nigeria.

The zone is made up of Niger, Kwara, Kogi, Benue, Plateau, Nasarawa states and the Federal  Capital  territory  (FCT).  Twelve  co-educational  public  Senior  Secondary Schools were used (four from each state). Senior secondary school (SSII) students were used for the study; the aspect of Geography concepts focused were regarded as difficult and falls under the SSII syllabus and scheme of work (WAEC Chief Examiner Report, 2011-2014).

The  Geography  topics  treated  include  contour  representation  of  land  forms,  cross section and relief features. The variable scope of the study is achievement, retention and attitude while gender is the moderating variable. The study lasted for twelve weeks.

1.8       Basic Assumptions of the Study

The fundamental assumptions underlying this study are:

1.         The teaching strategies mostly used by Geography teachers in secondary schools in North-central zone of Nigeria may be the conventional methods characterised by the teacher- centred approach and the students‘ little or no contributions.

2.         Instructional  materials  may  be  rarely  used  in  the  teaching  and  learning  of

Geography in secondary schools in the North-central zone of Nigeria.

3.         Physical  and  virtual  laboratories  may  not  have  been  used  in  teaching  and learning process in the selected schools.

Therefore, it becomes important to carry out a study investigating effects of physical and virtual laboratories on learning outcomes in geography among senior secondary school students in North- central Nigeria.

1.9       Operational Definition of Terms

The following terms were operationally defined as used in the study:

Achievement: Notable change in geography students‘ performance resulting from their

exposure to the teaching strategies.

Attitude: Settled behaviour or manner of acting, as representation of opinion or feelings in Geography lesson.

Contour: These are lines drawn to join places of equal height to create and conduct simulated and real geography experiment in the physical and virtual laboratories.

Cross section: it is a practice whereby relief shown by contours on the map are drawn to bring out the real appearance of such relief as it is on the ground when conducting geography experiment in the physical and virtual laboratories.

Gradient: Is the slope of the ground expressed as a ratio between height and the length of the ground in the process of carrying out an experiment to the groups.

Lecture Method: the control group classes where traditional instruction was administered during the study.

Physical laboratory: Is known as a place of practical work activities where geography students manipulate and observe objects and materials in geography laboratory.

Relief: Refer to the position and the character of the highlands and lowlands in geography lesson

Slope: A Non-flat area of ground that tends upward or downward during physical geography lesson

Valley: refers to low land between two highlands in geography experiment

Virtual laboratory:   An collaborative geography setting or a platform without real laboratory apparatuses meant for creating and conducting simulated practical geography experiments.

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