ABSTRACT
The overall purpose of the study was to determine the competence needs of extension agents for agricultural adaptation to climate change. Specifically, the study sought to ascertain the knowledge level of extension personnel on climate change; ascertain perceived roles of extension in agricultural adaptation; identify perceived competence needs of extension agents for agricultural adaptation; determine factors militating against competence building of extension agents for agricultural adaptation and identify the possible strategies to building competence of extension agents. The study tested the hypothesis that there is no significant relationship between personal/institutional characteristics and knowledge level of extension personnel on climate change and there is no significant relationship between personal factors and attitude of extension personnel to climate change. Data were collected using questionnaire administered to 93 extension personnel in the state Agricultural Development Programme. Data were presented with percentage and bar chart and analysed using mean score, standard deviation, factor analysis. The hypotheses were tested using logit model. Result of the study showed that 57.3% of extension personnel were females, while 43.0% were males. The mean age of the respondents was 45.2years and 93.5% of the respondents were married. Majority (53.3%) of the personnel had B.Sc/HND, 33.7% had OND/NCE, while 13.0% had M.Sc. Majority (63.4%) of the respondents had high knowledge of climate change and favourable attitude ((93.5%)) towards climate change. The respondents perceived roles of extension in climate adaptation were conducting workshops, seminars for creating awareness/knowledge of climate change and adaptation (M=3.74), facilitating access to relevant information (M=3.54), carrying out demonstration for teaching farmers measures used to mitigate or adapt to the effect of climate change (M=3.45) and others. The respondents perceived communication (M=2.93), technical knowledge/skill/information on climate change (M=2.89), participatory extension strategies (M=2.81), use of information communication technology (M=2.72), facilitation (M=2.72) as major areas of competence needs of extension agents. The major constrains militating against competence building of extension agents for climate change adaptation include inadequate fund (M=3.80), inadequate knowledge and technology on climate change (M=3.70), lack of incentives/motivation of extension agents (M=3.64) and others. The position of the extension personnel in extension organization and year spent in the organization were significantly (B=-5.844, p<0.05)(B=0.487,p<0.05) related to knowledge level of extension personnel, respectively. The study recommends that extension workers should possess mix of competence in the areas of subject matter, communication, ICTs and others for agricultural adaptation. The government should provide the needed infrastructure and funds to extension organization for training of extension personnel. Also there should be regular update of extension agents on climate change through in-house training underpinned by strong linkage and networking with research and other institutions.
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background information
Agriculture is a strong and efficient activity which plays pivotal roles in provision of food, fibre, fuel and income for human existence. It gainfully employs over 70% of the world’s population and main source of income for rural households in developing countries (Chayal, Dhaka and Suwalka. 2010). Agriculture is an important sector of the Nigeria’s economy because eighty percent of the rural dwellers depend on it as their major occupation, engaging in such activities as farming, hunting, fishing and livestock farming (Ekong, 2003). However in Nigeria, most of the agricultural production is rain fed. It depends highly on weather and climate in order to produce food and fiber necessary to sustain human life. Consequently, it is expected to be vulnerable to climate variability and change (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC),
2007).
Climate change is defined as a change in the average climatic condition of a place. (Anyadike, 2009). It refers to a statistically significant variation in either the mean state of the climate or in its variability, persisting for an extended period (typically decades or longer) (IPCC,
2007). According to Seiz and Foppa (2007) in Umunnakwe (2011) climate change is the result of many factors including the dynamic processes of the earth, external forces including variations in sunlight intensity and more recently, human activities or anthropogenic factors. The most concern of anthropogenic factors are the increase in the carbon dioxide (CO2), Chlorofluoro carbons (CFC), Methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), and water vapour level due to emissions from fossil fuels, cement manufacture, agriculture and deforestation (Steinfeld, 2006; Oyebade, 2009).
According to IPCC (2007), agriculture contributes significantly to climate change, primarily through the production and release of greenhouse gases (GHGs) such as carbon dioxide, methane and Nitrous oxide among others. Ebil (2000) in Okolo (2011) reported that it is responsible for approximately fifteen percent (15%) of all the greenhouse gas emission that help
to aggravate climate change. The “Slash and Burn” practice associated with farming system of forest and savannah regions is blamed for its enormous contribution to the accumulation of carbon dioxide and nitrous oxide in the atmosphere which contribute to climate change (Cleaver, Kevin and Goetz, 1994 in Okoroh, 2011). Fertilizer also is a significant source of emission in the agricultural sector. Chemical fertilizers typically contain the CHC; N2O and the application of fertilizer to vegetation leads to N2O emission over a 100 years time span (United Nation Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), 2007). Natural decay of waste water, crop waste (e.g.basgasse from sugar cane, empty palm fruit from oil production) and animal waste (e.g. from piggeries or cattle herds) can cause emission of the potent CHC methane (CH4).
Globally, climate change has a lot of negative effect to life . It is considered as one of the
serious threats to sustainable development, with the adverse impacts expected on the human health, food security, environment, and physical infrastructure (African-Wide Civil Society Climate Change Initiative for Policy Dialogues (ACCID), 2010). FAO (2009), reports that it alters the condition for food safety by increasing diseases on plants and animals. Due to increase in temperature caused by climate change, the oceans expand raising sea levels and reducing the amount of land available for agriculture (Devereux and Edwards 2004). Warmer oceans experience greater exploration resulting in higher rainfall which together with rising sea levels, contribute to erosion and flooding (McCarthy, Canziani, LelaryDokkemet al., 2001; Lama and Derkota 2009). Many parts of Africa are suffering severe drought and floods which destroyed roads and buildings and wiped out millions of hectares of farmlands (Spores, 2008).
Climate change is projected to have significant impacts on conditions affecting agriculture, including temperature, carbon dioxide, gracial runoff, precipitation and the interaction of these elements (Yesuf, Difalce, Deressa, and Kohlin, 2008). It affects agriculture seriously through change in availability of water which leads to frequent floods and drought resulting in variability in crop yields in different ecological zones (IPCC, 2007). Adverse effect is also
expected from the likely rise in the distribution and intensity of existing pests, diseases, and weeds, due to higher temperatures and humidity (Tubiello, Soussana and Howden, 2007). In the long run, climate change could affect agriculture in several ways including productivity, in terms of quantity and quality of crops, agricultural practices and inputs, environmental effect like soil erosion and soil drainage (leaching), rural spaces (through loss and gain of cultivated lands) and adaptation in which organisms may become more or less competitive. This results to substantial decline in agricultural productivity, including labour-productivity, leading to increase in food insecurity, malnutrition, poverty and mortality rates (FAO, 2009).
As climate change is already here with us, threatening human life, food security, health and the environment, adaption to its effect is crucial for continued existence of humanity and increased resilience of the environment particularly in agrarian economy (e.g Nigeria). According to IPCC (2007), adaptation is the adjustment in natural or human systems in response to actual or expected climate stimuli or their effects, to moderate harm or exploits beneficial opportunities. It refers to all those responses to climate change that may be used to reduce vulnerability or actions designed to take advantage of new opportunities that may arise as a result of climate change (Burton, Huq, Lim, Pilifosova and et al, 2002). Edoka (2012) refers to agricultural adaptation as adopting new farming practices, such as vermicomposting, to improve soil organic content, which is basic and essential in coping with and adapting to climate change. It is the actions taken by farmers to help them cope with the change or effects caused by climate change to reduce vulnerability on agriculture.
The need for adaptation to climate change presents a serious challenge to government, planners, managers, researchers, extension system, private organizations, communities etc. It calls for multi-stakeholders approach to measures, policies, strategies and competency building aimed at addressing climate change phenomenon. Adaptation to climate change requires building competency of all stakeholders in the agricultural sector particularly the extension professionals
and farmers. According to Ozor and Nnaji (2011), agricultural extension has a key role to play in changing the knowledge, attitude, resilience capacity and skills of the people (farmers) for efficient adaptation to climate change. As information brokers, educators and service provider to most vulnerable rural farmers, they occupy critical position in the forefront for agricultural adaptation to climate change.
Essentially, extension professionals play pivot role in disseminating useful information on climate change adaptation to farmers. To perform these duties properly, extension workers need to possess certain competencies. Thus, there is the need to address the competence needs for significant contribution to agricultural adaptation and resilience of farming communities to climate change.
The term competence is used to describe the job requirements that the individual needs to know or to have in order to perform a task required by a specific occupation (Winterton 2009). According to American Academy of Physician Assistants (AAPA), (2010), competence is the totality of knowledge, skills, attributes, behaviors and attitudes (or competencies), as well as, the ability to orchestrate these competencies into the full range of activities necessary for professional practice. In another words, it is the ability of an individual to perform a required task in their job.
Mulder (2001), states that continuing competence development is necessary for professionals. This is particularly true of agricultural extension agents due to the changing pattern of agricultural system caused by changing climate. Trede and Whitaker (2000) also reiterated the fact that agricultural extension professionals need to constantly develop and enhance their capabilities along with ongoing changes and challenges. Rapid changes in agricultural technology, in planning and delivery of educational programs, and the changing structure of the farming industry clearly indicate that agricultural extension instructors and trainers need to reassess their roles and responsibility in the planning and delivery of farmers’ education (Koukel and Cummings, 2002). It is an imperative particularly when there is a discrepancy between professionals’ competence and the needs of their clients, hence the need for the study.
1.2 Problem statement
Climate change is seriously threatening rural communities and farmers. According to Agwu and Okimanhe (2009), evidence of the unpleasant impact of climate change abound in the southeast of Nigeria. These include increased cases of flooding and numerous gully erosion sites which have resulted to loss of farmlands, farmstead, economic trees and biodiversity. Higher rainfall observed in the southern part of the country coupled with sea-level rise also resulted to crop losses due to water logging, loss of arable land and increased pest infestation (Nigeria First Communication Commission (NFNC), 2003). Recently, there are cases of flooding which destroyed people’s properties, buildings and lives in Anambra, Bayalsa, Delta and Kogi States of Nigeria. Nweke (2010) reports showed that Anambra State which is the study area is seriously affected by erosion and flooding due to climate change and there is low production of agricultural produce due to loss of nutrients. These resulted to numerous social problems such as forced migration, unemployment and poverty (Nweke, 2010). Building adaptation capability of farming communities in the state and Nigeria as a whole is therefore a formidable challenge.
According to International Food Policy Research Institute, farmers reported lack of information and knowledge of appropriate adaptation measures as barriers to adaptation (http/[email protected]). In Nigeria, many farmers especially the illiterate farmers do not know what these changes are all about; they lack a precise and comprehensive understanding of climate change and this can lead to misconception and inability to adapt to the changes (Okolo, 2012). According to Okali, (2004) in Okoro (2012), Nigeria’s high vulnerability to climate change is due to limited capacity to adapt which is attributed to low levels of awareness, financial resources, institutional and technological capability. The effectiveness with which farmers adapt to climate change significantly depends on how well it is understood by individual farmers. Ozor, Madukwe,
Onokala, Enete et al. (2010) opined that farmers’ ability to effectively respond to climate change challenges is determined by the quality of information available to them and how easily they access the information. Unfortunately most farmers seem to lack the needed knowledge/information and resources for climate change adaptation. In south-east agro-ecological zone of Nigeria, Obiora, 2012 reported that there was no investment capability in terms of both equipment and human resource. In other words, farmers are not adequately positioned to tackle the negative impact of climate change.
The above scenario suggests gap in extension role for agricultural adaptation to climate change. According to Davis (2009), Extension should play crucial role in technologies and management of information, capacity development, facilitating and implementing policies and programmes aimed at building local capacity for adaptation. Extension is expected to facilitate generation of knowledge, building awareness, transfer knowledge/technologies and implement effective actions for management of risks (FAO, 2008). To perform these roles, there is need to develop relevant competence among extension personnel. Specifically, building competence of extension agents who are directly in contact with farmers and rural communities is an imperative. Therefore the pertinent questions are: what are the competence needs of extension agents for agricultural adaptation to climate change? What are the attitude and knowledge level of extension agents on climate change? What are the specific skills, knowledge, behaviour/attitude required in areas of competence needs? What strategies are appropriate for acquiring the needed competence by extension agents? What are the possible constraints to competency building of extension agents for agricultural adaptation to climate change?
1.3 Purpose of the study
The general purpose of the study was to determine the competence needs of extension agents for agricultural adaptation to climate change in Anambra state, Nigeria.
Specifically, the Objectives were to:
1. ascertain the knowledge level of extension personnel on climate change ;
2. ascertain the attitude of extension personnel to climate change;
3. ascertain perceived role of extension in agricultural adaptation to climate change;
4. identify perceived competence needs of extension agents for agricultural adaptation to climate change;
5. determine factors militating against competence building of extension agents on agricultural adaptation to climate change and
6. identify the possible strategies to building competence of extension agents;
1.4 Hypothesis of the study
1. There is no significant relationship between personal characteristics and knowledge level of extension personnel on climate change.
2. There is no significant relationship between personal factors and attitude of extension personnel to climate change.
1.5 Significance of the study Climate change has significant effect on agriculture due to its dependent on climate. The farmers are vulnerable to changes associated with climate and extension agents have critical roles to ply, given their roles in agricultural development and direct contact with the farmers. The study will sensitize and increase awareness among extension professionals of their pivot role in addressing the problem of climate change. Information/findings on the specific skills, knowledge and attitude required by extension agents are useful to extension practitioners and administrators in developing training manuals, workshops or programmes for developing competences of extension agents for agricultural adaptation to climate change. Also results of the study will be useful to policy makers in formulating holistic and multi-stakeholder approach to capacity building for climate change adaptation in Nigeria. The study will also serve as a reference guide for further studies in the area and related areas of climate change.
This material content is developed to serve as a GUIDE for students to conduct academic research
COMPETENCE NEEDS OF EXTENSION AGENTS FOR AGRICULTURAL ADAPTATION TO CLIMATE CHANGE IN ANAMBRA STATE NIGERIA>
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